No. Custom columns can read only the info in calibre's database for the book.
One way to get started would be to use the command line. Write a script/program that scans your library for epubs, extracts the OPF from the epub, extracts the artist information from that opf, then writes that information to a custom column using calibredb set_custom. The library scan could use a search to look for books that have not been processed, perhaps a tag or perhaps a boolean custom column.
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