-an,
-ăn. This word appears in forsan, forsitan, and fortasse an (Att. Trag. Rel. p. 151 Rib.) or fortassan, seeming to enhance the idea of uncertainty and doubt belonging to fors, etc., and is regarded by some as the Greek conditional particle a)/n, and indeed one of these compounds, forsitan, sometimes in the Vulgate, translates a)/n; as, Joan. 4, 10; 5, 46; 8, 19; and in 3, Joan. 9, it still represents the various reading, a)/n.

-ce, an inseparable strengthening demonstrative particle,
-cĕ, an inseparable strengthening demonstrative particle, answering etymol. to the Gr. ge/ (Sanscr. ki; cf. Lat. ci-s and citra), and in signif. to the demonstr. i (in ou(tosi/, touti/, etc.), appended to words in different forms. Unchanged ce: hicce, haecce, hocce; also in MSS. and inscriptions one c: hice, etc.; plur.: hice, haece, haecce; gen. hujusce, etc.— Changed, Into ci before the interrog. particle ne: hiccine, hoccine, siccine, nunccine, etc. (v. hic, sic, nunc, etc.).— By a rejection of e, in hic, haec, hoc, nunc, etc. for hice, haece, hoce, nunce, etc.; illic, istic, nunc, sic (for illice, etc.); cf. Zumpt, Gram. § 132; Corss. Ausspr II. p. 235.

-cunque, adv.
-cunque, adv., v. cumque.

-do,
-do, -dāre (obsol., found only in the compounds, abdo, condo, abscondo, indo, etc.), 1, v. a. Sanscr. root dhā-, da-dhāmi, set, put, place; Gr. qe-, ti/qhmi; Ger. thun, thue, that; Eng. do, deed, etc.. This root is distinct from 1. do, Sanscr. dā, in most of the Arian langg.; cf. Pott. Etym. Forsch. 2, 484; Corss. Ausspr. 2, 410; but in Italy the two seem to have been confounded, at least in compounds, Curt. Gr. Etym. p. 254 sq.; cf. Max Müller, Science of Lang. Ser. 2, p. 220, N. Y. ed.; Fick, Vergl. Wört. p. 100.

-ne n' n,
-nĕ (also apocopated n' and only n), interrog. and enclit. part. [weakened from nē]. It simply inquires, without implying either that a negative or an affirmative reply is expected (cf. num, nonne), and emphasizes the word to which it is joined; which is always, in classic Latin, the first word of the clause (ante- class. after other words: sine dote uxoremne? Plaut. Trin. 2, 2, 94; 1, 2, 141; id. As. 5, 2, 78; id. Mil. 3, 1, 92). In direct questions it is translated by giving an interrogative form to the sentence; in indirect interrogations by whether. In direct interrogations, with indic.: meministine me in senatu dicere? etc., Cic. Cat. 1, 3, 7: potestne rerum major esse dissensio? id. Fin. 3, 13, 44: tune id veritus es? id. Q. Fr. 1, 3, 1: jamne vides, belua, jamne sentis? etc., id. Pis. 1, 1: quid, si etiam falsum illud omnino est? tamenne ista tam absurda defendes? id. N. D. 1, 29, 81; cf. id. Rosc. Am. 15, 44: quiane auxilio juvat ante levatos? Verg. A. 4, 538: tun' te audes Sosiam esse dicere? Plaut. Am. 1, 1, 217: valuistin? id. Trin. 1, 2, 12.—After an elided s: satin habes, si feminarum nulla'st: quam aeque diligam? Plaut. Am. 1, 3, 11: pergin autem? id. ib. 1, 3, 41: vin commutemus? id. Trin. 1, 2, 21 al.— Esp. with rel. pron.; ellipt.: quemne ego servavi? i. e. do you mean the one whom? etc., Plaut. Mil. 1, 1, 13: quodne vobis placeat, displiceat mihi? can it be that what pleases? etc., id. ib. 3, 1, 19; id. Merc. 3, 3, 12; id. Am. 2, 2, 65; so quin for quine, id. Trin. 2, 2, 79 Brix ad loc.; id. Bacch. 2, 3, 98; id. Most. 3, 2, 50 al.—So with ut and si: utine adveniens vomitum excutias mulieri? Plaut. Merc. 3, 3, 15; id. Rud. 4, 4, 19: sin, saluti quod tibi esse censeo, id. consuadeo, id. Merc. 1, 2, 32.— In indirect interrogations, with subj., whether: ut videamus, satisne ista sit justa defectio, Cic. Ac. 1, 12, 43: Publilius iturusne sit in Africam et quando, ex Aledio scire poteris, id. Att. 12, 24, 1: videto vasa, multane sient, Cato, R. R. 1: quem imitari possimusne, ipse liber erit indicio, Varr. L. L. 7, § 4 Müll.; cf. id. ib. 10, § 9.— Sometimes affixed to an interrogative pronoun, Plaut. Cist. 4, 1, 2: quone malo mentem concussa? Timore deorum, Hor. S. 2, 3, 295; cf.: uterne Ad casus dubios fidet sibi certius? id. ib. 2, 2, 107; and: illa rogare: Quantane? id. ib. 2, 3, 317.—（e) -ne is sometimes used for nonne, where an affirmative reply is expected: misine ego ad te epistulam? Plaut. Bacch. 3, 6, 22; id. Trin. 1, 2, 92; 99; id. Most. 2, 1, 15: rectene interpretor sententiam tuam, Cic. Tusc. 3, 17, 37; id. Fin. 2, 32, 104.—（z) Rarely = num: potestne virtus servire? Cic. de Or. 1, 52, 226: potesne dicere? id. Tusc. 1, 27, 67; id. Sen. 16, 56.— With an, annon, or anne, in the second interrogation, v. an.—With necne, v. neque.—Sometimes pleonastic with utrum, followed by an (mostly anteclass.): est etiam illa distinctio, utrum illudne non videatur aegre ferendum ... an, etc., Cic. Tusc. 4, 27, 59: sed utrum strictimne attonsurum dicam esse an per pectinem, nescio, Plaut. Capt. 2, 2, 18 Brix ad loc.; id. Most. 3, 1, 151; id. Bacch. 1, 1, 42; cf. Madv. Gram. § 452, obs. 1.—Sometimes, in the second interrogation, ne for an (mostly poet.): Smyrna quid et Colophon? Majora minorane fama? Hor. Ep. 1, 11, 3: ut in incerto fuerit, vicissent victine essent, Liv. 5, 28, 5: cum interrogaretur, utrum pluris patrem matremne faceret, Nep. Iphicr. 3, 4.

-pe, an enclitic particle with an intensive force,
-pe, an enclitic particle with an intensive force Sauscr. -pa, -pi, which is similarly used; cf. -que, as in prope, nempe, quippe; and appearing as p in quispiam, uspiam, etc. (cf. Corss. Ausspr. 2, 846).

-pte, a pronominal suffix appended to adjective and,
-ptĕ, a pronominal suffix appended to adjective and (more rarely) to substantive personal pronouns, esp. in the ablative; the Engl. self, own: meopte ingenio, Plaut. Ps. 3, 2, 14. With adj. pron.: meāpte malitiā, Plaut. Truc. 2, 5, 18: tuopte ingenio, id. Capt. 2, 3, 11; Tac. H. 2, 63: suopte pondere, Cic. N. D. 1, 25, 69: suāpte manu, id. de Or. 3, 3, 10: nostrāpte culpā, Ter. Phorm. 5, 2, 1.— With subst. pron.: mepte fieri servum, Plaut. Men. 5, 8, 10: suumpte amicum, id. Mil. 2, 4, 38.

A a, indecl., n.,
A, a, indecl. n. (sometimes joined with littera), the first letter of the Latin alphabet, corresponding to the a, a of the other Indo-. European languages: A primum est: hinc incipiam, et quae nomina ab hoc sunt, Lucil. ap. Terent. Scaur. p. 2255 P.: sus rostro si humi A litteram impresserit, Cic. Div. 1, 13, 23: ne in A quidem atque S litteras exire temere masculina Graeca nomina recto casu patiebantur, Quint. 1, 5, 61.The sound of the A is short or long in every part of the word; as, ăb, păter, ită; ā, māter, frustrā. During a short period (between about 620 and 670 A. U. C. = from 134 to 84 B.C.) long a was written aa, probably first by the poet L. Attius, in the manner of the Oscan language; so we find in Latin inscriptions: AA. CETEREIS (i.e.a ceteris), CALAASI, FAATO, HAACE, MAARCIVM, PAAPVS, PAASTORES, VAARVS; and in Greek writing, MAAPKO*y *yIO*s MAAPKEAAO*s, KOINTON MAAPKION (like Osc. aasas = Lat. āra, Osc. Paapi = Lat. Pāpius, Osc. Paakul = Lat. Pāculus, Pācullus, Pācuvius, etc.), v. Ritschl, Monum. Epigr. p. 28 sq., and cf. Mommsen, Unterital. Dialekte, p. 210 sq. (The Umbrian language has gone a step farther, and written long a by aha, as Aharna, Naharcom, trahaf, etc.; cf. Aufrecht and Kirchhoff, Umbrische Sprachdenkm. p. 76 sq.) Vid. also the letters E and U.In etymological and grammatical formation of words, short a very often (sometimes also long a) is changed into other vowels.Short a is changed, into long a—In consequence of the suppression of the following consonants at the end or in the middle of the word: ŭb, ā; vădis, vūs; ăg-, ăg-men, exāmen; tăg-, contūmino; căd-, cāsus. Hence also in the abl. sing. of the first decl., and in the particles derived from it. in consequence of the suppression of the original ablat. end. -d: PRAEDAD (Col. Rostr.), praedā; SENTENTIAD (S. C. de Bacch.), sententiā; EXTBAD (ib.), extrā; SVPRAD (ib.), suprā. —Hence,In perfect forms: scăb-o, scābi; căveo, cūvi; făv-eo, fāvi; păv-eo, pāvi (for scăbui, căvui, făvui, păvui).In other forms: ăgo, ambūges; păc-, păc-iscor, pâcis (pâx); săg-ax, sūgus, sāga; măc-er, mâcero; făg- (fagei=n), fūgus. (Contrary to analogy, ă remains short in dănunt, from dă-in-unt, V. Ritschl, l.l.p. 17.)Short a is changed into é or ē—Into é. (a) Most frequently in the second part of compounds, particularly before two consonants: facio, confectus; jacio, conjectus; rapio, dereptus; dăm-, damno, condemno; fāl-, fallo, fefelli; măn-, mando, commendo; scando, ascendo; ăp-, aptus, ineptus; ăr-, ars, iners, sollers; ăn-, annus, perennis; căpio, auceps; căput, triceps; ăgo, remex; jăcio, objex. And thus in Plautus, according to the best MSS., dispenno, dispessus from pando, compectus from compăciscor, anteceptus from capio (on the other hand, in Vergil, according to the best MS., aspurgo, attractare, deiractare, kept their a unchanged).Sometimes ă is changed into ĕ also before one consonant (but in this case it is usually changed into ĭ; v. infra, 3. a. a.): grădior, ingrĕdior; pătior, perpĕtior; părio, repĕrio; păro, vitupĕro; ăp-, coepi (i. e. co-ŭpi); căno, tubicĕn, tibicĕn; in the reduplicated carcĕr (from carcar) farfŏrus (written also farfārus); and so, according to the better MSS., aequipĕro from păro, and defĕtigo from fătigo.In words taken from the Greek: ta/lanton, talŏntum; fa/lara, phalŏrae; si/saron, sisŏr (but, according to the best MSS., cumŭra from kama/ra, not camŏra).Short a is changed to ē in some perfect forms: ăgo, ēgi; fūcio, féci; jăci, jĕci; frag-, frango, frēgi; căpio, cēpi, and păg-, pango, pēgi (together with pepĭgi and panxi, v. pango).Short a is changed to ĭ, a (most frequently in the second part of compounds) before one consonant: ăgo, abĭgo; făcio, confĭcio; cădo, concĭdo; sălio, assĭlio; răpio, abrĭpio; păter, Juppĭter (in Umbrian lang. unchanged, Jupater), Marspĭter; Diespĭter, Opĭter; rătus, irrĭtus; ămicus, inìmicus (but ŭ remains unchanged in adŭmo, impătiens, and in some compounds of a later period of Roman literature, as praejacio, calefacio, etc.). — Sometimes also before two consonants (where it is usually changed into ĕ; v. supra, 2. a. b.): tăg-, tango, contingo; păg-, pango, compingo (unchanged in some compounds, as peragro, desacro, depango, obcanto, etc.).ă is changed into ĭ in the reduplicated perfect forms: cădo, cecĭdi; căno, cecĭni; tăg-, tango, tetĭgi; păg-, pango, pepĭgi.Likewise in some roots which have ă: păg-, pignus; străg- (strangulo, stra/ggw), stringo.In words taken from the Greek: mhxanh/, machĭna; pata/nh, patĭna; buka/nh, bucĭna; truta/nh, trutĭna; balanei=on, balĭneum; *kata/na, Catĭna (written also Catana); ‘*akra/gas, Agrĭgentum.Short a is changed into short or long o.Into ŏ: scăbo, scobs; păr, pars, portio; dăm-, dŏmo; Fabii, Fŏvii (v. Paul. ex Fest. p. 87); ma/rmaron, marmŏr; Mars, redupl. Marmar, Marmor (Carm. Fratr. Arv.).Into ō: dă-, dōnum, dōs; ăc-, ăcuo, ōcior (v. this art.).Short a is changed into ŭ—In the second part of compounds, particularly before l, p, and b: calco, inculco; salsus, insulsus; salto, exsulto; capio, occŭpo; răpio, surrupio and surruptus (also written surripio and surreptus); tăberna, contŭbernium; —before other consonants: quătio, conoŭtio; as, decussis; Mars, Mamŭrius, Mamŭralia; and once also condumnari (Tab. Bant. lin. 8, immediately followed by condemnatus, v. Klenze, Philol. Abhandl. tab. I., and Mommsen, Unterital. Dial. p. 149).In words of Greek origin: ‘*eka/bh, Hecŭba; skuta/lh, scutŭla; kraipa/lh, crapŭla; pa/ssalos, pessŭlus; a=flaston, aplustre; qri/ambos, triumphus.ă is perhaps changed into ŭ in ulciscor, compared with alc-, u)le/cw (arc-, arceo).Long a is sometimes changed into ē or ō.Into é: hālo, anhélo; fās-, féstus, profēstus; nām, némpe.Into ō: gnā-, gnārus, ignārus, ignōro. (But in general long a remains unchanged in composition: lābor, delūbor; gnàvus, ignūnus; fàma, infūmis.)Contrary to the mode of changing Greek a into Latin e, i, o, u (v. supra), Latin a has sometimes taken the place of other Greek vowels in words borrowed from the Greek, as: lo/gxh, lancea; ku/lic, călix; *ganumho)hs, Caiāmitus.The repugnance of the Latin Language to the Greek combined vowels ao has caused the translocation of them in Alumento for *daome/o\wn (Paul. ex Fest. p. 18 Müll.).— Greek a is suppressed in Hercules from ‘*hraklh=s (probably in consequence of the inserted u; in late Latin we find Heracla and Heracula, cf. Ritschl, in Rhein. Mus. Neue Folge, vol. 12, p. 108).Latin ă was early combined with the vowels i and u, forming the diphthongs ai and au; by changing the i into e, the diphthong ai soon became ae. So we find in the oldest inscriptions: AIDE, AIDLLIS, AIQVOM, GNAIVOD, HAICE, DVELONAI, TABELAI, DATAI, etc., which soon gave place to aedem, aedilis, aequom, Gnaeo, haec, Bellonae, tabellae, datae, etc. (the Col. Rostr. has PRAESENTE, PRAEDAD, and the S. C. de Bacch. AEDEM. The triphthong aei, found in CONQVAEISIVEI (?), is very rare; Miliar. Popil. lin. 11, v. Ritschl, l. l. p. 21). In some poets the old gen. sing. of the first decl. (-ai) is preserved, but is dissyllabic, āī. So in Ennius: Albūī Longūī, terrūī frugiferāī, frondosāī, lunāī, viāī; in Vergil: aulāī, aurāī, aquāī, pictāī; in Ausonius: herāī.ue as well as au are changed into other vowels.The sound of ae, e, and oe being very similar, these vowels are often interchanged in the best MSS., So we find caerimonia and cerimonia, caepa and cēpa, saeoulum and séculum; scaena and scēna; caelum and coelum, haedus and hoedus, macstus and moestus; cena, coena, and caena, etc.In composition and reduplications ae becomes í: aequus, iníquus; quaero, inquíro; laedo, illído; taedet, pertisum (noticed by Cic.); aestumo, exístumo; cuedo, cecídi, concído, homicida.ae is also changed into í in a Latinized word of Greek origin: *)axaio/s （*)axaivo/s）, Achíous.The diphthong au is often changed to ó and ú (the latter particularly in compounds): caudex, códex; Claudius, Clodius; lautus, lotus; plaustrum, plōstrum; plaudo, plōdo, explōdo; paululum, pōlulum; faux, suffōco; si audes (acc. to Cic. or acc. to others, si audies), sódes, etc.; claudo, inclūdo; causa, accūso. Hence in some words a regular gradation of au, o, u is found: claudo, clōdicare, clúdo; raudus, ródus, rúdus; caupo, cópa, cūpa; naugae, nōgae (both forms in the MSS. of Plautus), nūgae; fraustra, frode, frude (in MSS. of Vergil); cf. Ritschl, in Wintercatalog 1854-55, and O. Ribbeck, in Jahn's Neue Jahrb. vol. 77, p. 181 sq.—The change of au into oē and ō appears only in audio, (oboedio) obēdio.Au sometimes takes the place of av-: faveo, fautum, favitor, fautor; navis, navita, nauta; avis, auceps, auspex. So Latin aut corresponds to Sanscr. avo. (whence -vā, Lat. -ve), Osc. avti, Umbr. ute, ote; and so the Lat. preposition ab, through av, becomes au in the words aufero and aufugio (prop. av-fero, av-fugio, for ab-fero, ab-fugio). Vid. the art. ab init.In primitive roots, which have their kindred forms in the sister-languages of the Latin, the original a, still found in the Sanscrit, is in Latin either preserved or more frequently changed into other vowels.Original a preserved: Sanscr. mātri, Lat. màter; S. bhrātri, L. fràter; S. nāsā, L. nàsus and nàris; S. ap, L. aqua; S. apa, L. ab; S. nāma, L. năm; S. ćatur,L. quattuor (in Greek changed: te(ttares); S. capūla, L. căput (in Greek changed: kefalh/, etc.).Original a is changed into other Latin vowels— Into e: S. ad, L. ed (ĕdo); S. as, L. es (esse); S. pat, L. pet (peto); S. pād, L. pĕd (pès); S. dant, L. dent (dens); S. ǵan, L. gen (gigno); S. mā, L. mè-tior; S. saptan, L. septem; S. daśan, L. decem; S. śata, L. centum; S. aham, L. ŏgo; S. pāra, L. per; S. paśu, L. pŏcus; S. asva, L. ŏquus, etc. Into i: S. an-, a- (neg. part.), L. in-: S. ana (prep.), L. in; S. antar, L. inter; S. sama, L. similis; S. agni, L. ignis; S. abhra, L. imber; S. panéa, L. quinque, etc. Into o: S. avi, L. ŏvi (ovis); S. vać, L. vōc (voco); S. pra, L. pro; S. pā, L. po (pŏtum); S. nāma, L. nōmen; S. api, L. ŏb; S. navan, L. nŏvem; S. nava, L. nŏvus, etc. Into u: S. marmara, L. murmur. Into ai, ae: S. prati, L. (prai) prae; S. śaśpa, L. caespes. Into different vowels in the different derivatives: S. mā, L. mê-tior, mŏdus; S. praó, L. prŏcor, prŏcus; S. vah, L. vĕho, via. Sometimes the Latin has preserved the original a, while even the Sanscrit has changed it: Lat. pa-, pater, Sanscr. pd, pitri. As an abbreviation A. usually denotes the praenomen Aulus; A. A. = Auli duo, Inscr. Orell. 1530 (but A. A. = Aquae Aponi, the modern Abano, ib. 1643 sq.; 2620; 3011). The three directors of the mint were designated by III. VIRI A. A. A. F. F. (i. e. auro, argento, aeri flando, feriundo), ib. 569; 2242; 2379; 3134 al.; so also A. A. A., ib. 3441 (cf. Cic. Fam. 7, 13 fin., and v. the art. Triumviri); A. D. A. agris dandis adsignandis, and A. I. A. agris judicandis adsignandis; A. O. amico optimo; A. P. a populo or aediliciae potestatis; A. P. R. aerario populi Romani. —Upon the voting tablets in judicial trials A. denoted absoluo; hence A. is called littera salutaris, Cic. Mil. 6, 15; v. littera. In the Roman Comitia A. (=antiquo) denoted the rejection of the point in question; v. antiquo. In Cicero's Tusculan Disputations the A. designated one of the disputants = adulescens or auditor, opp. to M. for magister or Marcus (Cicero); but it is to be remarked that the letters A and M do not occur in the best MSS. of this treatise; cf. edd. ad Cic. Tusc. 1, 5, 9.—In dates A. D. =ante diem; v. ante; A. U. C. = anno urbis conditae; A. P. R. C. anno post Romam conditam.

B b, indecl., n.,
B, b, indecl. n., designates, in the Latin alphabet, the soft, labial sound as in English, unlike the Gr. beta (B, b), which approached the Engl. v in sound; v. Corss. Ausspr. I. p. 124 sqq. At the beginning of words it represents an original dv or gv, and elsewhere an original gv, p, v, or bh (v); v. Corss. Ausspr. I. pp. 134, 161. It corresponds regularly with Gr. b, but freq. also with p, and, in the middle of words, with f; cf. brevis, braxu/s; ab, a)po/; carbasus, ka/rpasos; ambo, a)mfi/, a)/mfw; nubes, ne/fos, etc.; v. Roby, Gram. I. p. 26; Kühner, Gram. § 34, 6. In Latin, as in all kindred languages, it was used in forming words to express the cry of different animals, as balare, barrire, baubari, blacterare, boare, bombitare, bubere, bubulare; children beginning to talk called their drink bua; so, balbus denoted the stammering sound, bambalio the stuttering, blatire and blaterare the babbling, blaesus the lisping, blandus the caressing. At the beginning of words b is found with no consonants except l and r (for bdellium, instead of which Marc. Emp. also wrote bdella, is a foreign word); but in the middle of words it is connected with other liquid and feeble consonants. Before hard consonants b is found only in compounds with ob and sub, the only prepositions, besides ab, which end in a labial sound; and these freq. rejected the labial, even when they are separated by the insertion of s, as abspello and absporto pass into aspello and asporto; or the place of the labial is supplied by u, as in aufero and aufugio (cf. ab init. and au); before f and p it is assimilated, as suffero, suppono; before m assimilated or not, as summergo or submergo; before c sometimes assimilated, as succedo, succingo, sometimes taking the form sus (as if from subs; cf. abs), as suscenseo; and sometimes su before s followed by a consonant, as suspicor. When b belonged to the root of a word it seems to have been retained, as plebs from plebis, urbs from urbis, etc.; so in Arabs, chalybs ( = )/*aray, xa/luy), the Gr. y was represented by bs; as also in absis, absinthi-um, etc. But in scripsi from scribo, nupsi from nubo, etc., b was changed to p, though some grammarians still wrote bs in these words; cf. Prisc. pp. 556, 557 P.; Vel. Long. pp. 2224, 2261 ib. Of the liquids, l and r stand either before or after b, but m only before it, with the exception of abmatertera, parallel with the equally anomalous abpatruus (cf. ab init. and fin.), and n only after it; hence con and in before b always become com and im; as inversely b before n is sometimes changed to m, as Samnium for Sabinium and scamnum for scabnum, whence the dim. scabellum. B is so readily joined with u that not only acubus, arcubus, etc., were written for acibus, arcibus, etc., but also contubernium was formed from taberna, and bubile was used for bovile, as also in dubius ( = doio/s, duo) a b was inserted. B could be doubled, as appears not only from the foreign words abbas and sabbatum, but also from obba and gibba, and the compounds with ob and sub. B is reduplicated in bibo (cf the Gr. pi/w), as the shortness of the first syllable in the preterit bĭbi, compared with dēdi and stĕti or sti/ti, shows; although later bibo was treated as a primitive, and the supine bibitum formed from it. Sometimes before b an m was inserted, e. g. in cumbo for cubo ku/ptw, lambo for la/ptw, nimbus for ne/fos; inversely, also, it was rejected in sabucus for sambucus and labdacismus for lambdacismus. As in the middle, so at the beginning of words, b might take the place of another labial, e. g. buxis for pyxis, balaena for fa/laina, carbatina for carpatina, publicus from poplicus, ambo for a)/mfw; as even Enn. wrote Burrus and Bruges for Pyrrhus and Phryges; Naev., Balantium for Palatium (v. the latter words, and cf. Fest. p. 26).—In a later age, but not often before A.D. 300, intercourse with the Greeks caused the pronunciation of the b and v to be so similar that Adamantius Martyrius in Cassiod. pp. 2295-2310 P., drew up a separate catalogue of words which might be written with either b or v. So, Petronius has berbex for verbex, and in inscrr., but not often before A. D. 300, such errors as bixit for vixit, abe for ave, ababus for abavus, etc. (as inversely vene, devitum, acervus, vasis instead of bene, debitum, acerbus, basis), are found; Flabio, Jubentius, for Flavio, Juventius, are rare cases from the second century after Christ.—The interchange between labials, palatals, and linguals (as glans for ba/lanos, bilis for fel or xolh/) is rare at the beginning of words, but more freq. in the middle; cf. tabeo, th/kw, and Sanscr. tak, terebra and te/retron, uber and ou)=qar; besides which the change of tribus Sucusana into Suburana (Varr. L. L. 5, § 48 Müll.; Quint. 1, 7, 29) deserves consideration. This interchange is most freq. in terminations used in forming words, as ber, cer, ter; brum or bulum, crum or culum, trum, bundus and cundus; bilis and tilis, etc.—Finally, the interchange of b with du at the beginning of words deserves special mention, as duonus for bonus, Bellona for Duellona, bellum for duellum, bellicus for duellicus, etc., and bis from duis.—As an abbreviation, B usually designates bonus or bene. Thus, B. D. = Bona Dea, Inscr. Orell. 1524; 2427; 2822: B. M. = bene merenti, ib. 99; 114; 506: B. M. P. = bene merenti posuit, ib. 255: B. D. S. M. = bene de se meritae, ib. 2437: B. V. V. = bene vale valeque, ib. 4816: B. M. = bonae memoriae, ib. 1136; 3385: B. M. = bonā mente, ib. 5033; sometimes it stands for beneficiarius, and BB. beneficiarii, ib. 3489; 3868; 3486 al.

C c, indecl., n. f.,
C, c, n. indecl., or f., the third letter of the Latin alphabet; corresponded originally in sound to the Greek *g (which in inscrr., esp. in the Doric, was frequently written like the Latin C; v. O. Müll. Etrusk. 2, p. 295); hence the old orthography: LECIONES, MACISTRATOS, EXFOCIONT, [pu]CNANDOD, PVC[nad], CARTACINIENSI, upon the Columna rostrata, for legiones, magistratos, effugiunt, pugnando, pugnā, Carthaginiensi; and the prænomina Gaius and Gnaeus, even to the latest times, were designated by C. and Cn., while Caeso or Kaeso was written with K; cf. the letter G. Still, even as early as the time of the kings, whether through the influence of the Tuscans, among whom *g sounded like K, or of the. Sabines, whose language was kindred with that of the Tuscans, the C seems to have been substituted for K; hence even Consul was designated by Cos., and K remained in use only before a, as in Kalendae; k. k. for calumniae causā, INTERKAL for intercalaris, MERK for mercatus, and in a few other republican inscrr., because by this vowel K was distinguished from Q, as in Gr. Kappa from Koppa, and in Phœnician Caph from Cuph, while C was employed like other consonants with e. Q was used at the beginning of words only when u, pronounced like v, followed, as Quirites from Cures, Tanaquil from Thanchufil, Thanchfil, *qankvil; accordingly, C everywhere took the place of Q, when that accompanying labial sound was lost, or u was used as a vowel; so in the gentile name of Maecenas Cilnius, from the Etrusk. Cvelne or Cfelne (O. Müll. Etrusk. 1, p. 414 sq.); so in coctus, cocus, alicubi, sicubi; in relicŭŭs (four syl.) for reliquus (trisyl.): AECETIA = AEQITIA, i. q. aequitas (V. AECETIA), etc., and as in the Golden Age cujus was written for quojus, and cui for quoi (corresponding to cum for quom); thus, even in the most ancient period, quor or cur was used together withquare, cura with quaero, curia with Quiris, as inversely inquilinus with incola, and in S. C. Bacch. OQVOLTOD = occulto. Hence, at the end of words que, as well as ce in hic, sic, istic, illic, was changed to c, as in ac for atque, nec for neque, nunc, tunc, donec for numque, tumque, dumque; and in the middle of words it might also pass into g. as in negotium and neglego, cf. necopinus. Since C thus gradually took the place of K and Q, with the single exception that our kw was throughout designated by qu, it was strange that under the emperors grammarians began again to write k instead of c before a, though even Quint. 1, 7, 10, expressed his displeasure at this; and they afterwards wrote q before u, even when no labial sound followed, as in pequnia, or merely peqnia, for pecunia; cf. the letters Q and U. About the beginning of the sixth century of the city the modified form G was introduced for the flat guttural sound, and C thenceforth regularly represented the hard sound = our K. The use of aspirates was unknown to the Romans during the first six centuries, hence the letter C also represents the Gr. X, as BACA and BACANALIBVS, for Baccha and Bacchanalibus (the single C instead of the double, as regularly in the most ancient times); cf. also sxi/zw with scindo, and polu/xroos with pulcer. But even in the time of Cicero scheda came into use for scida, and pulcher for pulcer; so also the name of the Gracchi was aspirated, as were the name Cethegus and the word triumphus, which, however, in the song of the Arval brothers, is TRIVMPVS; cf. Cic. Or. 48, 160, and the letter P. About this time the use of aspirates became so common, in imitation of Greek, that Catullus wrote upon it an epigram (84), which begins with the words: Chommoda dicebat, si quando commoda vellet; and in Monum. Ancyr. inchoo is used for the orig. incoho, acc. to which the ancient Romans also employed cohors for chors (v. cohors).On account of the near relationship of c and g, as given above, they are very often interchanged, esp. when connected with liquids: Cygnus, Progne, Gnidus, Gnossus, from ku/knos, *pro/knh, *kni/dos, *knwsso/s (even when n was separated from c by a vowel, as in Saguntum for *za/kunqos, or absorbed by an s, as in vigesimus and trigesimus for vicensimus and tricensimus); mulgeo for mulceo, segmen from seco, gummi for commi (ko/mmi); gurgulio for curculio, grabatus for kra/batos, so that amurca was also written for amurga, from a)mo/rgh, as inversely conger for gonger, from go/ggros; but also with other letters; cf. mastruca and mastruga, misceo and mi/sgw, mugio and muka/omai, gobius and kwbio/s, gubernator and kubernh/ths. Not less freq. is the interchange of c and t, which is noticed by Quint. Inst. 1, 11, 5, and in accordance with which, in composition, d or t before qu, except with que, became c, as acquiro, nequicquam, iccirco for idcirco, ecquis for etquis, etc. Hence is explained the rejection of c before t, as in Lutatius for Luctatius, and the arbitrariness with which many names were written with cc or tt for ct, as Vettones for Vectones; Nacca or Natta for Nacta (from the Gr. gna/ptw). It would be erroneouś to infer, from the varied orthography of the names' Accius, Attius, and Actius, or Peccius, Pettius, and Pectius, a hissing pronunciation of them; for as the Romans interchange the terminations icius and itius, and the orthography fetialis and fecialis, indutiae and induciae, with one another, they also wrote Basculi or Bastuli, anclare or antlare, etc. Ci for ti does not appear till an African inscr. of the third century after Christ, and not often before Gallic inscrr. and documents of the seventh century; ti for ci is not certainly found before the end of the fourth century; and ci before a vowel does not appear to have been pronounced as sh, except provincially, before the sixth or seventh century; cf. Roby, Gr. bk. 1, ch. 7; and so in gen., Corss. Ausspr. I. p. 33 sqq. C is sometimes interchanged with p: columba, palumbes; coquus, popa, popina (cf. in Gr. ko/teros; Sanscr. katara; po/teros; Lat. uter). C is sometimes dropped in the middle of a word: luna for luc-na, lumen for luc-men; so also at the beginning of a word: uter for cuter; Sanscr. katara, v. supra.As an abbreviation, C designates Gaius, and reversed, O, Gaia; cf. Quint. 1, 7, 28. As a numeral, C = centum, and upon voting tablets = condemno, Ascon. Cic. Div. in Caecil. 7, 24; cf. the letter A fin.; hence it is called littera tristis (opp. A = absolvo, which is called littera salutaris), Cic. Mil. 6, 15 Moeb.

D d, indecl., n. f.,
D, d (n. indecl., sometimes f. sc. littera), the flat dental mute, corresponding in character and sound to the English d and the Greek *d, was the fourth letter of the Latin alphabet, and was called de: Ter. Maur. p. 2385 P., Auson. Idyll. 12, de Litt. Monos. 14. But at the end of a syllable, or after another consonant, its sound was sharpened, so that the grammarians often discuss the question whether d or t should be written, especially in conjunctions and prepositions. Illa quoque servata est a multis differentia, ut ad cum esset praepositio, d litteram, cum autem conjunctio, t acciperet (Quint. 1, 7, 5; cf. id. 1, 4, 16). Hence we may infer that some disputed this distinction, and that the sounds of ad and at must at least have been very similar (cf. also Terent. Scaur. p. 2250, Vel. Long. p. 2230 sq., Cassiod. p. 2287, 2291). Thus also aput, it, quit, quot, aliut, set, haut are found for apud, id, quid, quod, aliud, sed, haud. It would appear from the remarks of these authors that the last two words in particular, having a proclitic character, while they distinctly retained the d sound before an initial vowel in the following word, were pronounced before a consonant almost as set, haut (Mar. Vict. p. 2462 P., Vel. Long. l. l. v. Corss. Ausspr. 1, 191 sq.). The use of t for d in the middle of a word, as Alexenter for Alexander, atnato for adnato, is very rare (cf. Wordsworth, Fragm. p. 486 sq.). On the other hand, the use of d for t, which sometimes appears in MSS. and inscrr., as ed, capud, essed, inquid (all of which occur in the Cod. palimps. of Cic. Rep.), adque, quodannis, sicud, etc., fecid, reliquid, etc. (all in inscriptions after the Augustan period), is to be ascribed to a later phonetic softening (cf. Corss. Ausspr. 1, 191 sq.). As an initial, the letter d, in pure Latin words, suffers only a vowel after it; the single consonantal compound dr being found only in borrowed words, such as drama, Drusus, Druidae, etc., and in the two onomatopees drenso and drindio. Accordingly, the d of the initial dv, from du, was rejected, and the remaining v either retained unaltered (as in viginti for duiginti; cf. triginta) or changed into b (as in bellum, bis, bonus, for duellum, duis, duonus; v. those words and the letter B). So too in and after the 4th century A.D., di before vowels was pronounced like j (cf. Jovis for Djovis, and Janus for Dianus); and hence, as the Greek di (di) passed into dz, i. e. z (as in z a for d ia, and zeta for diaeta), we sometimes find the same name written in two or three ways, as Diabolenus, Jabolenus, Zabolenus; Jadera, Diadora, Zara. In many Greek words, however, which originally began with a y sound, d was prefixed by an instinctive effort to avoid a disagreeable utterance, just as in English the initial j has regularly assumed the sound of dj: thus Gr. zugo/n, i. e. diugon = L. jugum; and in such cases the d sound has been prefixed in Greek, not lost in Latin and other languages (v. Curt. Griech. Etym. p. 608 sq.).b. As a medial, d before most consonants undergoes assimilation; v. ad, no. II.; assum, init., and cf. iccirco, quippiam, quicquam, for idcirco, quidpiam, quidquam; and in contractions like cette from cedite, pelluviae from pediluviae, sella from sedela. In contractions, however, the d is sometimes dropped and a compensation effected by lengthening the preceding vowel, as scāla for scand-la. D before endings which begin with s was suppressed, as pes from ped-s, lapis from lapid-s, frons from frond-s, rasi from radsi, risi from rid-si, lusi from lud-si, clausi from claud-si; but in the second and third roots of cedo, and in the third roots of some other verbs, d is assimilated, as cessi, cessum, fossum, etc. D is also omitted before s in composition when another consonant follows the s, as ascendo, aspicio, asto, astringo, and so also before the nasal gn in agnatus, agnitus, and agnosco, from gnatus, etc.: but in other combinations it is assimilated, as assentio, acclamo, accresco; affligo, affrico; agglomero, aggrego; applico, approbo, etc. In tentum, from tendo, d is dropped to avoid the combination ndt or ntt, since euphony forbids a consonant to be doubled after another.g. Final d stood only in ad, apud, sed, and in the neuter pronouns quid, quod, illud, istud, and aliud, anciently alid. Otherwise, the ending d was considered barbarous, Prisc. p. 686 P. The letter d represents regularly an original Indo-Germanic d, in Greek d, but which in German becomes z , in Gothic t, and in Anglo-Saxon t: cf. Gr. h(/domai, Sanscr. svad, Germ. süss, Angl.-Sax. svēte (sweet), with Lat. suadeo; domare with Gr. dama/w, Germ. zähmen, Eng. tame; domus with de/mw, timber, O. H. Germ. zimber; duo with du/w, zwei, two. But it is also interchanged with other sounds, and thus sometimes represents— An original t: mendax from mentior; quadraginta, quadra, etc., from quatuor.— An original r: ar and ad; apur or apor and apud; meridies and medidies, audio and auris; cf. arbiter, from ad-beto; arcesso for ad-cesso.— An original l: adeps, Gr. a)/leifa; dacrima and lacrima, dingua and lingua; cf. on the contrary, olere for odere, consilium and considere, Ulixes from *)odusseu/s (v. Corss. Ausspr. 1, 223).— An original s: Claudius, from the Sabine Clausus, medius and mi/sos; and, on the contrary, rosa and r(o/don. — A Greek q: fides, pi/stis; gaudere, ghqe/w; vad-i-monium (from va-d-s, vadis), a)/eqlon. In the oldest period of the language d was the ending of the ablat. sing. and of the adverbs which were originally ablatives (cf. Ritschl, Neue Plaut. Excur. I.; Brix ad Plaut. Trin. Prol. 10): puCNANDO, MARID, DICTATORED, IN ALTOD MARID, NAVALED PRAEDAD on the Col. Rostr.; DE SENATVOS SENTENTIAD (thrice) IN OQVOLTOD, IN POPLICOD, IN PREIVATOD, IN COVENTIONID, and the adverbs SVPRAD SCRIPTVM EST (thrice), EXSTRAD QVAM SEI, and even EXSTRAD VRBEM, in S. C. de Bacch. So intra-d, ultra-d, citra-d, contra-d, infra-d, supra-d; contro-d, intro-d, etc.; and probably interea-d, postea-d. Here too belongs, no doubt, the adverb FACILVMED, found in the last-mentioned inscription. But this use of the d became antiquated during the 3d century B.C., and is not found at all in any inscription after 186 B. C. Plautus seems to have used or omitted it at will (Ritschl, Neue Plaut. Excurs. p. 18: Corss. Ausspr. 1, 197; 2, 1008). D final was also anciently found— In the accus. sing. of the personal pronouns med, ted, sed: INTER SED CONIOVRASE and INTER SED DEDISE, for inter se conjuravisse and inter se dedisse, in the S. C. de Bacch. This usage was retained, at least as a license of verse, when the next word began with a vowel, even in the time of Plautus. But in the classic period this d no longer appears. — In the imperative mood; as estod, Fest. p. 230. The Oscan language retained this ending (v. Corss. Ausspr. 1, 206).— In the preposition se-, originally identical with the conjunction sed (it is retained in the compound seditio); also in red-, prod-, antid-, postid-, etc. (redire, prodire, etc.); and in these words, too, it is a remnant of the ancient characteristic of the ablative (v. Corss. Ausspr. 1, 200 sq.; Roby, Lat. Gr. 1, 49). As an abbreviation, D usually stands for the praenomen Decimus; also for Deus, Divus, Dominus, Decurio, etc.; over epitaphs, D. M. = Diis Manibus; over temple inscriptions, D. O. M. = Deo Optimo Maxumo; in the titles of the later emperors, D. N. = Dominus Noster, and DD. NN. = Domini Nostri. Before dates of letters, D signified dabam, and also dies; hence, a. d. = ante diem; in offerings to the gods, D. D. = dono or donum dedit; D. D. D. = dat, dicat, dedicat, etc. Cf. Orell. Inscr. II. p. 457 sq.!*? The Romans denoted the number 500 by D; but the character was then regarded, not as a letter, but as half of the original Tuscan numeral (or CIↃ) for 1000.

E e, indecl., n.,
E, e, indecl. n. or (sc. littera) fem., a vowel corresponding to both the e and the h of the Greeks, Ter. Maur. p. 2386 P.; Aus. Idyll. de Litter. Monos. 3 and 4; Mart. Cap. 3, § 235. Its sound varied; short e being sounded sometimes like Engl. e in men (so in pater, inter, etc.), sometimes more nearly like short i, as in Engl. pin (so in famelia, mereto, Menerva, etc.); whence, in the literary language, it passed, in a large class of words, into ĭ (familia, merito, etc.), though retained in the popular speech, and oft. in inscriptions. Long e also varied in sound, often resembling the diphthong ae, with which it is constantly confounded in MSS. and inscrr. (cf. raeda and reda; saeculum and seculum; ceteri and caeteri, etc.), and often approaching the sound of ī (v. Corss. Ausspr. 1, 324 sqq.). The short e in Latin is the least emphatic of all the vowels; hence, it not only took the place of other vowels in changes of words where the sounds became weakened, and in the vulgar language where the vowel sounds were less sharply distinguished, but frequently took the place of a final syllable ending in a consonant, and was sometimes, especially at the end of words, rejected. The transition of ă into ĕ (which took place especially before two consonants, whereas usually ă passed into ĭ in open syllables, v. art. A.) is seen in the compounds refello, commendo, ineptus, confercio, incestus, perpetior, etc. In some words the orthography is unsettled, as in the compounds of spargo, which are written sometimes aspergo, conspergo, dispergo, etc., and sometimes aspargo, conspargo, dispargo, etc.; as along with dispando the vulgar form dispenno also occurs. So in all the verbal reduplications, as cĕcidi, cĕcini, pĕperi, pĕpigi, tĕtigi; pĕperci, fĕfelli; dĕdi and stĕti (from cado, cano, pario, pango, tango, parco, fallo, DA and STA), whereas the vowels i, o, u remain unchanged in reduplication (bĭbi; mŏmordi; tŭtudi; for the anomalous forms in Gell. 7, 9, are certainly Graecized). As along with pĕpĭgi there also arose by syncope (in the Lat. lang. a predominating element in the formation of words) the perfect pēgi; so we may explain the perfect forms cēpi, fēci, jēci, frēgi, and ēgi, as syncopated from cĕcĭpi, fĕfĭci, jĕjĭci, frĕfĭgi, and ĕïgi (this last analogously with dēgo, from dēĭgo). For i stands ĕ in the neuter forms of the adjectives in is (acre, agreste, facile, etc.).— In the nominative forms: aedes, apes, canes, etc. (for aedis, apis, canis, etc. v. h. vv.).— In the dative forms: morte, jure dicundo, Dijove, Victore, etc. (cf. Neue, Formenl. 1, 192 sq.; and Quint. 1, 4, 17). — In the nominatives in es, whose genitive has ĭtis.—（e) In the nominatives from stems ending in c, b, p, t, n, etc., as, pollex, caelebs, princeps, comes, flumen, from pollic-, caelib-, princip-, comit-, flumin-; and (z) In the old and partly vulgar manner of writing and pronouncing: CEPET, EXEMET, NAVEBOS (Colum. Rostr.), FVET, DEDET, TEMPESTATEBVS, TIBE (Epit. of the Scipios), COMPROMESISE (S. C. de Bacch.), MENERVA, MAGESTER, HERE, VEA, VELLA, etc. (Quint. 1, 4, 8, and 17; Varr. R. R. 1, 2, 14; cf. Cic. de Or. 3, 12, 46). In the earliest period (before Plautus) ĕ was found in many words in which ĭ afterwards took its place; as: semul, fuet, mereto, tempestatebus, etc.— (h) It is prob. too that the abl. ĕ of the third declension proceeded from ī (or id); cf. Neue, Formenl. 1, 239 sqq.; Corss. Ausspr. 2, 241 sq. It less freq. happens that o and u pass over into ĕ, as vello, ocellus, verto, vertex, vester, compared with vulsi, oculus, vorto, vortex, voster: generis from genus, societas from socius, etc.; and even for long u we have ĕ in dejĕro and pejĕro, from jūro. The stem vowel o is weakened to ĕ in the vocative of nouns in us of the second declension; ĕ also represents o in the perf. and in pass. forms, such as scripsere, conabare, conabere, from scripserunt, conabaris, conaberis; in the future forms attinge, dice, facie, recipie, from attingam, dicam, faciam, recipiam (see under dico init.); in the forms mage, pote, from magis, potis, etc.; it is inserted for euphony in the nom. of many nouns and adjj whose stems end in r preceded by a mute, as ager, aper, liber, aeger, ruber, sacer, etc. The vowel e is suppressed in the imperatives dic, duc, fac, fer, in the anteclass infinitive biber (from bibere); in the vocative of the second declension of nouns in ius, as Gai, geni, fili, canteri, columbari, mantuari, volturi, mi (cf. Freund in Jahn's Neue Jahrbüch, 1835, vol. 13, p. 148 sq.), in enclitic particles often, as: hic, haec, hoc, for hice, etc.; so, illaec, sic, nunc, nec, ac, etc.: viden, potin: quin, for quine, etc., and as an initial in the present forms of the verb esse (sum, sumus, sunt; sim, etc., for esum, esumus, esunt, esim, etc.). But the forms facul, simul, Bacchanal, etc., are not apocopated. Even a radical ĕ sometimes drops out when a prefix or suffix is taken; so, gigno, for gigeno: malignus, for maligenus: gnatus, for genatus. The long e interchanges most freq. with the diphthongs ae and oe (q. v.); yet it sometimes also took the place of ā, as in anhēlo, from hālo, and in the rustic bēlo, for bālo; and likewise of ī, as LEBER, SPECA, AMECVS, for līber, spīca, amīcus (Quint. Inst. l. l.; Varr. R. R. 1, 48, 2; Paul. ex Fest. p. 15, 6 Müll.); and in words borrowed from the Greek, as chorēa, Darēus, along with Academīa, Alexandrīa; see the letter I. As an abbreviation, E (mostly in connection with other abbreviations) signifies egregius, equus, eques, erexit, evocatus, etc.; e. g. E. M. V. = egregiae memoriae vir; E. Q. R. = eques Romanus; EE. QQ. RR. = equites Romani; E. P. = equo publico; E. M. D. S. P. E. = e monitu de sua pecunia erexit, etc. praep., out of, from, v. ex.

F f, indecl., n. f.,
F, f, indecl. n. or (sc. littera) f. The sign v is the Aeolic digamma, adopted by the Latins instead of 8, the form used by the Etruscans, Oscans, and Umbrians for this letter; in inscriptions, before A.U.C. 500, it is sometimes written . The ancient grammarians, misled by the shape, ascribed to F the power of the digamma; thus: v Aeolicum digamma, quod apud antiquissimos Latinorum eandem vim quam apud Aeolis habuit, eum autem prope sonum quem nunc habet, significabat p cum aspiratione; sicut etiam apud veteres Graecos pro f, p, et h, Prisc. 1, 4, p. 12. But it is certain that Lat. F never represents the sound of digamma, and etymologically corresponds to it in but a single root (frango; Gr. r(h/gnumi, Curt. Gr. Etym. p. 531; Corss. Ausspr. 1, 397 sq. Fick, however, denies any connection between these words, Vergl. Wört. p. 182; cf. Curt. Gr. Etym. p. 511; r(i=gos, Lat. frigus, was never digammated). The sound of F was nearly that of the Gr. f, but rougher, Quint. 1, 4, 14; 12, 10, 29; cf. Prisc. 1, 4, p. 14; Mar. Vict. p. 2455 P. Initial F in Latin corresponds to an original Indo-European bh, dh, and gh: 1. To bh, as in fari, fama, Sanscr. root bha-; Gr. fa-, fhmi/: ferre, Sanscr. bhar-; Gr. fe/rw: fuga, Sanscr. bhug-, to bend; Gr. fugh/; 2. To dh, as in firmus, Sanscr. dhar-, to support: ferus, Sanscr. dhvar-, to destroy; Gr. qh/r (fh/r): fumus, Sanscr. dhumas, smoke; Gr. qu/ein; 3. To gh, as in far, farina, Sanscr. gharsh-, to rub: formus, Sanscr. ghar-, to burn; Gr. qermo/s, etc. In situations not initial these original sounds commonly gave place in Latin to b, or were weakened to h (v. Corss. Ausspr. 1, 140 sqq.). In writing Greek words, f was represented by p or b, the Latins having no means of expressing the aspiration (p-h, not like Engl. ph or f) until the post-Aug. period; but in the later writings and inscr. f is generally represented by f (Corss. Ausspr. 1, 173; Roby, Lat. Gram. 1, p. 33). Respecting the use of the reversed F (!*?) for V, see under that letter. As an abbreviation, F stands for fili, functus, faciundum. F. C., faciundum curavit. FF., fecerunt. F. I., fieri jussit. FL. P., flamen perpetuus. F. P. C., filius ponendum curavit. F. M., fecit monumentum. F.A., filio amantissimo. F. C. H., fieri curavit heres. FR. or FRU., frumentum, frumentarius.

G g, indecl., n. f.,
G, g, indecl. n. or (on account of littera) f., had originally no place in the Latin alphabet: both the sharp and the flat guttural mutes, our k and g sounds, being represented by C; hence on the Columna Rostrata LECIONES, MACISTRATOS, EXFOCIONT, (pu)CNANDOD, PVCN(ad), CARTACINIENSIS, for legiones, etc.; hence, too, the archaic form ACETARE for agitare (v. Paul. ex Fest. p. 23 Müll. N. cr.), and the still common abbreviation of the names Gaius and Gneus in C and Cn.—At a later period (acc. to Plut. Qu. Rom. p. 277 D and 278 E, by means of a freedman of Spurius Carvilius Ruga, about the beginning of the second Punic war) a slight graphic alteration was made in the C, which introduced into the Roman orthography the letter G (on the old monuments C); thus we have in the S. C. de Bacchanal.: MAGISTER, MAGISTRATVM, FIGIER, GNOSCIER, AGRO; on the other hand, the orthography GNAIVOD PATRE PROGNATVS on the first Epitaph of the Scipios, which dates before that time, indicates either incorrectness in the copying or a later erection of the monument. When Greek words are written in Latin letters and vice versa, G always corresponds to *g. Its sound was always hard, like Engl. g in gate, at least until the sixth century A. D.As an initial, g, in pure Latin words, enters into consonantal combination only with l and r; and therefore in words which, from their etymology, had the combination gn, the g was rejected in the classical period, and thus arose the class. forms nascor, natus, nosco, novi, notus, narus, navus, from the original gnascor, gnatus, gnosco, etc. (cf. the English gnaw, gnat, gnarr, etc., where the g has become silent); whereas in compounds the g again is often retained: cognatus, cognosco, ignarus, ignavus.—An initial g is dropped in lac (kindred to GALACT, ga/la), likewise in anser (kindred to Germ. Gans; Sanscr. hansa; Greek xh/n).As a medial, g combines with l, m, n, r, although it is sometimes elided before m in the course of formation; so in examen for exagmen from agmen; in contamino for contagmino (from con-TAG, tango). Before s the soft sound of g passes into the hard sound of c, and becomes blended with the s into x (v. the letter X); though sometimes the g (or c) is elided altogether, as in mulsi from mulgeo, indulsi from indulgeo; cf.: sparsus, mersus, tersus, etc. So too before t, as indultum from indulgeo. The medial g is often dropped between two vowels, and compensated for by lengthening the preced. vowel: māior from măgior, pulēium from pulēgium, āio from ăgio (root AG, Sanscr. ah, to say; cf. nego). Likewise the medial g is dropped in lēvis for legvis, Sanscr. laghn, fava for fagva, fruor for frugvor, flamma for flagma, stimulus for stigmulus, examen for exagmen; jumentum, from root jug-: sumen from sug-; cf.: umor, flamen, etc.As a final, g was only paragogic, acc. to Quint. 1, 7, 13, in the obsolete VESPERVG (for vesperu, analogous with noctu; v. Spald. ad loc.).Etymologically, g corresponds to an original Indo - European g or gh, or is weakened from c, k. Thus it stands where in Greek we have: g, as ago, a)/gw; ager, a)gro/s; argentum, a)/rguros; genus, ge/nos; fulgeo, fle/gw, and so very commonly; x (usually before r, or in the middle of a word): ango, a)/gxw; rigo, bre/xw; gratus, xai/rw, etc.; k: viginti, ei)/kosi; gubernator, kubernh/ths; gummi, ko/mmi, etc.—By assimilation, g was produced from b and d in oggero, suggero, aggero, etc., from obgero, sub-gero, ad-gero, etc.As an abbreviation, G denotes Galliarum, Gallica, gemina, Germania, genius, etc.; and sometimes Gaius (instead of the usual C); v. Inscr. Orell. 467; 1660; 4680: G.P.R.F. genio populi Romani feliciter, Inscr. Orell. 4957; v. Corss. Ausspr. 1, 76 sqq.; Roby, Lat. Gr. 1, 38 sqq.

H h,
H, h, the eighth letter of the Latin alphabet and the weakest guttural. The sign is borrowed from the Greek, in which H was the old form of the spiritus asper, corresp. to the Latin H-sound (HEKATON, e(kato/n, *h*o*s, o(/s, etc.). Even some of the ancients doubted whether the Latin H was properly a letter: si H littera est, non nota, Quint. 1, 5, 19; cf.: H litteram, sive illam spiritum magis quam litteram dici oportet, etc., Gell. 2, 3, 1. Before the fall of the republic, the sound of H before vowels became so weak that it was frequently omitted in writing; and this weakness became more marked in many words in the time of the empire; cf.: aheneus and aeneus; cohors and coörs; prehendo and prendo; vehemens and vemens, etc. (v. Corss. Ausspr. 1, 96 sqq.).As an initial and medial, H may be combined with any vowel, but the orthography, in this respect, was inconstant: thus we have herus and erus; honus, honera, and onus, onera; harundo and arundo; and even hac for ac (Inscr. Orell. 23); aruspex and haruspex; ercisco, erctum, and hercisco, herctum; aheneus and aëneus; Annibal and Hannibal; Adria and Hadria, etc.; v. Gell. l. l.—As a sign for the aspiration of the consonants c, p, r, and t (as in Greek the aspirates x, f, q were originally designated by KH, HH, TH), H first came into use in the seventh century of Rome; cf. Cic. Or. 48, 160; and v. the letter C.— Medial h is often dropped.—As a final, h occurs only in the interjections ah and vah.In the formation of words, h was changed into c before t, as tractum from traho; vectum from veho; and coalesced with s into x, as traxi, vexi; cf. also onyx from onych-s; v. the letter X.As an abbreviation, H. denotes hic, haec, hoc, hujus, etc.; habet, heres, honor, etc. HH. heredes. H. AQ. hic acquiescit. H. B. M. heredes bene merenti. H. C. Hispania citerior or hic condiderunt. H. E. T. heres ex testamento. H. F. C. heres faciundum curavit. H. L. hunc locum. H. L. ET. M. H. N. S. hic locus et monumentum heredem non sequitur. H. M. S. D. M. hoc monumentum sine dolo malo. H. S. E. hic situs est. H. S. F. hoc sibi fecit, etc.; v. Inscr. Orell. II. p. 461 sq.!*? The abbreviation HS. for sestertium does not strictly belong here, because H is not the letter of that shape, but the numeral II. crossed; v. sestertius init.

I i, the ninth letter of the Latin alphabet,
I, i, the ninth letter of the Latin alphabet, a vowel; for even the old grammarians distinguished it from the consonant written with the same character; see the letter J. The short i is, next to ë, the least emphatic of the Latin vowels, and serves, corresp. to the Gr. o, as a connecting sound in forming compounds: aerĭfodina, aerĭpes, altitudo, altĭsonus, arcitenens, homĭcida, etc. It is often inserted in Latin words derived from Greek: mina, techina, cucinus, lucinus (for mna, techna, cycnus, lychnus, etc.); cf. Ritschl, Rhein. Mus. 8, p. 475 sq.; 9, p. 480; 10, p. 447 sq. And in similar manner inserted in arguiturus, abnuiturus, etc. The vowel i is most closely related to u, and hence the transition of the latter into the former took place not only by assimilation into a following i, as similis, together with simul and simultas; facilis, together with facul and facultas; familia, together with famul and famulus; but also simply for greater ease of utterance; so that, from the class. per. onward, we find i written in the place of the older u: optimus, maximus, finitimus, satira, lacrima, libet, libido, etc., instead of the earlier optumus, maxumus, finitumus, satura, lacruma, lubet, lubido, etc.; cf. also the archaic genitives cererus, venerus, honorus, nominus, etc., for the later Cereris, Veneris, honoris, nominis, etc., the archaic orthography caputalis for capitalis, etc. For the relation of i to a and e, see those letters. Examples of commutation between i and o are rare: -agnitus, cognitus, together with notus, ilico from in loco, the archaic forms ollus, ollic for ille, illic, and inversely, sispes and sispita for sospes and sospita. As an abbreviation, I (as the sign of the vowel i) denotes in, infra, ipse, Isis, etc.: IDQ iidemque, I. H. F. C. ipsius heres faciendum curavit, IM. immunis, IMP. imperium, imperator, etc. The capital letter I is often confounded with the numeral I. (unus, primus).

J j, a consonant which,
J, j, a consonant which, although originally represented by the same character as the vowel i, was distinguished from it by the ancients themselves, Charis. p. 1 P.; Diom. p. 416 ib.; Prisc. p. 544 ib.; Don. p. 1735 ib. al. The old grammarians supposed it to lengthen a preceding vowel (but v. Roby, Gram. 1, § 143). Its pronunciation was like that of the German j (or Engfish y) at the beginning of syllables, as jus, injuria, ejectus (Corss.). But where j occurs as a medial between two vowels, it is, according to the statement of the grammarians, to be pronounced double; wherefore, in such cases, it is also written double by many (e. g. by Cicero), as ajjo, Majja, ejjus, pejjus, etc., Quint. 1, 4, 11; Prisc. p. 545 P.; Vel. Long. p. 2219 ib. al.; and in inscriptions with a tall I. The closest relation exists between j and the vowel i, and in the course of formation and inflection they are very often interchanged: Pompejus, Pompei; Gajus, Gai; jam, etiam, quoniam; ajo, aibam. By the poets, i was often hardened into j to form position: abjete, abjetibus, for abiete, abietibus; cf. Val. Prob. p. 1432 P.; Mar. Vict. p. 2474 ib. J is related to g, as magis, major. J arises from dj or di, as Juppiter, Jovis, from Djuppiter, Djovis. J was omitted before another i in compounds of jacio with monosyllabic prepositions: abicit, adicit, obicit, for abjicit, adjicit, objicit. The preposition is regularly long (Verg. A. 6, 421), but after the time of Ovid is sometimes shortened (Luc. 9, 188). A diphthong is sometimes formed with the preceding vowel: r??cĕ (Verg. E. 3, 96), ??cĭt (Lucr. 3, 890). As an abbreviation, J. O. M. signifies Jovi Optimo Maximo; J. R. Juno Regina; J. V. T. Julia Victrix Togata.

K k,
K, k, was used in the oldest period of the language as a separate character for the sound k, while C was used for the sound g. In course of time the character C came to be used also for the k sound, and, after the introduction of the character G, for that alone, and K disappeared almost entirely from the Latin orthography, except at the beginning of a few words, for each of which, also, the letter K itself was in common use as an abbreviation; thus, Kæso (or Cæso), Kalendæ (less correctly Calendæ), sometimes Karthago (or Kar.; v. Carthago); and in special connections, Kalumnia, Kaput (for Calumnia and Caput, e. g. k. k. = calumniae causā in jurid. lang.): nam k quidem in nullis verbis utendum puto, nisi quae significat, etiam ut sola ponatur, Quint. 1, 7, 10; cf. id. 1, 4, 9.—Some grammarians, indeed, as early as Quintilian's time, thought it proper always to write K for initial C before a, Quint. 1, 7, 10.—Besides the above-mentioned abbreviations, the K is also found in KA. for capitalis, KK. for castrorum, K. S. for carus suis.

L l, indecl., n. f.,
L, l, indecl. n. or (on account of littera) f., the eleventh letter of the Latin alphabet (I and J being counted as one), in form modified from a *l, like the Greek, but with the angle downward. In sound it was identical with Gr. lambda, Engl. l. L has, according to Pliny, a threefold power: the slight sound of the second l, when doubled, as in ille, Metellus; a full sound, when it ends words or syllables, or follows a consonant in the same syllable, as in sol, silva, flavus, clarus; and a middle sound in other cases, as in lectus, Prisc. 1, 7, 38 (p. 555 P.). In transcriptions of Greek words in Latin and of Latin words in Greek letters, it always corresponds to *l. In etymology it represents, Usually an original l; cf. alius, a)/llos; lego, le/gw; leo, le/wn; lavo, lou/w, etc.— Sometimes an r, as in lilium, lei/rion; balbus, ba/rbaros; latrare, Sanscr. ra-, to bark; lateo, Sanscr. rah-, to abandon; luceo, Sanscr. ruc-, etc.; cf. also the endings in australis, corporalis, liberalis, and in stellaris, capillaris, maxillaris.— Sometimes a d; cf. lacrima, da/kruon; levir, Sanscr. dēvar, Gr. dah/r; oleo, odor, Gr. o)/zw, o)/dwda; uligo, udus; adeps, Sanscr lip-, to smear, Gr. a)/leifar. Before l an initial guttural or t is often dropped, as latus for tlatus, lis for stlis, lamentum from clamo; lac, cf. Gr. galakt-; and a preceding c, d, n, r, s, or x is omitted or assimilated, as sella for sedula (sed-la), corolla for coronula (coronla), prelum for prem-lum (from premo), āla = ax-la (axilla); so, libellus for liberulus (liber), alligo for ad-ligo, ullus for unulus. In the nominative of nouns the ending s is not added after l, as in consul, vigil; and l final occurs in Latin only in such words. L stands alone, As a numeral for 50.— As an abbreviation, usually for Lucius; rarely for libens, locus, or libertus.

M m, the twelfth letter of the Latin alphabet,
M, m, the twelfth letter of the Latin alphabet (J not being distinguished from I in the class. period), corresponds in form and sound to the Greek M; the Latin language, however, does not combine an initial m with n, as in the Greek mna=, mnh=ma, mni/on, mno/os, etc.; hence, the Greek mna= became Latin mĭna. The Latin language, unlike the Greek, tolerated a final m; but its sound was obscure, Prisc. p. 555 P. (cf. Quint. 12, 10, 31), and before an initial vowel, even in prose, was scarcely heard (hence Verrius Flaccus proposed to represent it by an M half obliterated, thus, N). In poetry, the vowel also immediately preceding the m was elided, Quint. 9, 4, 40; 11, 3, 34; 109; Diom. p. 488 P.; Prisc. p. 555 sq. ib.; Val. Prob. 1392; 1440 ib. To this rejection of the m at the end of words before vowels are owing the forms attinge, dice, ostende, facie, recipie, for attingam, dicam, ostendam, faciam, recipiam; v. the letter E; and the forms donec for donicum, coëo, coërceo for com-eo, com-erceo; circueo, circuitus, for circum-eo, circum-itus; veneo for venum eo; vendo for venum do; animadverto for animum adverto, etc.—M is substituted for p or b before a nasal suffix, as som-nus, cf. sopor, sopio; scamnum, cf. scabellum; Samnium for Sabinium; summus, cf. sub, super. Often also for n before a labial, as impello for inpello; cf. rumpo, root rup-; lambo, root lab-, with fundo, root fud-, etc.—M corresponds with the m of all Indo-European tongues, like Gr. m; cf. simul, a(/ma; me, me; mel, me/li; magnus, me/gas; but in inflections final m corresponds with Gr. n, as navem, nau=n; musarum, mousw=n; sim, ei)/hn, etc.—M is interchanged most freq. with n; so eundem, eandem, quendam, quorundam, tantundem, from eum, eam, quem, quorum, tantum; and, on the other hand, im is written for in before labials and m: imbellis, imbibo, imbuo; impar, impedio, imprimo, immanis, immergo, immuto, etc. Thus also m regularly stands for the final n of neuters borrowed from the Greek. A collat. form of Nilus, Melo, for *nei=los, is mentioned in Paul. ex Fest. p. 7; 18 and 129 Müll.—The Latin m also interchanges with Gr. b: mel-ior, bel-ti/wn; mortuus (Sanscr. mrita), broto/s (v. for full details, Corss. Ausspr. 1, pp. 263 sqq.).As an abbreviation, M. denotes most freq. the prænomen Marcus, and less freq. magister, monumentum, municipium; v. the Index Notar. in Inscr. Orell. 2, p. 464 sq. M' denotes the prænomen Manius.As a numeral, M, standing for CIC, denotes the number 1000.

N n, had its full,
N, n, had its full, pure sound only when it began a syllable; in the middle or at the end of a word it was weakened. Hence the remark of Priscian (p. 556 P.): n quoque plenior in primis sonat, et in ultimis partibus syllabarum, ut nomen, stamen; exilior in mediis, ut amnis, damnum, is not accurate, v. Corss. Ausspr. 1, p. 248 sq. Between two vowels, the single n frequently takes the place, in MSS. and inscriptions, of double n; thus: Pescenius, Porsena, conubium, conecto, conitor, coniveo. The n of con- for com- often falls away before h; as: cohaerere, coheres, cohibere, cohors; and before j; as: coicere, cojux or cojunx, cosul, etc. In very late Latin, n was frequently dropped before s in the participial ending -ans, -ens, and before st, scr, or simple s in composition. In the earlier language this occurs in the ending -iens; as: quoties, toties, vicies, for quotiens, etc.; and in a few other instances, as castresis for castrensis; formosus for the older form formonsus; and in inscriptions, meses for menses, tösor for tonsor, etc.; cf. also, quăsi for quansi (quam si). Before the guttural letters a medial n receives the sound of Greek g before gutturals, wherefore, in early times, viz., by Attius, we have also g written for n: Agchises, agceps, aggulus, aggens, agguilla, iggerunt, etc., Varr. ap. Prisc. p. 556 P. (cf. Varr. L. L. p. 264 Müll.); cf. Mar. Victor. p. 2462 and 2465 P.; hence called n adulterinum by Nigid. ap. Gell. 19, 14, 7.Assimilation commonly takes place before l, m, and r: illabor, immitto, irrumpo (v. in), yet is often neglected; before the labials, n is commonly changed into m: imberbis, imbutus; impar, impleo; and before initial m the preposition in is frequently written im, v. Prol. Verg. p. 433 Rib.The letter n is frequently inserted, particularly before s: mensis, ensis, ansa; Megalesia and Megalensia, frons and frus. Less freq. before other consonants: tundo, jungo, mingo, pungo, etc.; cf. also: lanterna and laterna, ligula and lingula. Sometimes n is inserted with a vowel: fru-niscor from fruor, and perh. fenestra from festra. The double forms, alioquin and alioqui, ceteroqui and ceteroquin, seem to rest on purely phonetic grounds, v. h. vv.As an abbreviation, N usually stands for natus, nefastus dies, nepos, nomine, novum, the praenomen Numerius, numero, numine.—N = natione, natus, nostri, nostro, etc., numerus, numero, etc. N. D. N. = numini domini nostri. N. L. = non liquet (v. liqueo). N. M. V. = nobilis memoriae vir. NN. BB. = nobilissimi. NP. = nefastus prior. NVM. = nummum. In poetry, n alone sometimes stands for the enclitic ne, even before a consonant: nostin quae sit? Ter. Eun. 2, 3, 58; Verg. A. 3, 319; 12, 797 al.

O o, the fourteenth letter of the Latin alphabet,
O, o, the fourteenth letter of the Latin alphabet, corresponding to the Gr. o and w. The Latin language possessed both the sound and the sign from the earliest times; whereas the Etruscan language never possessed the o, and the Umbrian seems not to have received it as an alphabetical character till a later period. The oldest monuments of the Latin tongue frequently employ o where the classic language has u. So on the Column. Rostr. MACESTRATOS (acc. plur.), EXFOCIONT, CONSOL, PRIMOS (nom. sing.), CAPTOM; in the epitaphs of the Scipios, HONC OINO, COSENTIONT, DVONORO OPTVMO VIRO (bonorum optumum virum); in the S. C. de Bacch. IN OQVOLTOD al. And even in the later inscrr. and MSS., we sometimes find o for u: POPLICO, POPOLVM, TABOLEIS, in the Tab. Bantina: FACIONDAM DEDERONT, Inscr. Orell. 1585: MONDO, HOC TOMOLO, ib. 4858: fondus, fornacatibus, solitodo, etc., in good MSS. (v. Freund, Cic. Mil. p. 18). And, on the contrary, u for o in the old forms, fruns, funtes, for frons, fontes, v. h. vv.: RVBVSTIS for robustis, in the Cenot. Pisan.; v. Inscr. Orell. 642: NVMENCLATOR, Inscr. Grut. 630, 5: CONSVBRINVS, ib. 1107, 1: SACERDVS, ib. 34, 5: VNV LOCV, ib. 840, 1. O appears in class. Lat. particularly in connection with qu and v: quom, avos. This interchange of o and u seems to have been effected rather by dialectical and local than by organic and historical causes; just as in the modern Italian dialects a preference is shown on the one hand for o and on the other for u, and in one and the same dialect the Latin o has passed over into u and the u into o. —On the commutation of o and e, see the letter E.—We have o for au in Clodius, plodo, plostrum, sodes, etc. (also in polulum for paululum, Cato, R. R. 10, 2).— O inserted in the archaic forms: Patricoles, Hercoles, v. Ritschl ap. Rhein. Mus. 8, p. 475 sq., and 9, p. 480. As an abbreviation, O. stands for omnis and optimus: I. O. M., Jovi Optimo Maximo: O. E. B. Q. C., ossa ejus bene quiescant condita, Inscr. Orell. 4489; cf.: O. I. B. Q., ossa illius bene quiescant, ib. 4483; 4490: O. N. F., omnium nomine faciundae, ib. 4415: O. T. B. Q., ossa tua bene quiescant: O. V., optimo viro, ib. 4135; also: optimi viri, ib. 5037.

P p, the fifteenth letter of the Latin alphabet, the character for which is derived from the ancient form of the Greek II,
P, p, the fifteenth letter of the Latin alphabet, the character for which is derived from the ancient form of the Greek II (P or P), as is shown by inscriptions and coins, which exhibit the P in these forms.The P-sound, like the K- and T-sounds, was not aspirated in the ancient language; whence the spelling TRIVMPE for triumphe, in the Song of the Arval Brothers.As an initial, P combines, in pure Latin words, only with the consonants l and r; the combinations pn, ps, and pt belong to words borrowed from the Greek, with the sole exception of the pron. suffix pte.— Hence it often disappears before t; as TOLOMEA, Inscr. Fabr. 9, 438.—It has also been dropped before l in the words lanx, Gr. plac; latus, Gr. platu/s; later, Gr. pli/nqos, linter, Gr. plunth/r, and others (Corss. Ausspr. 1, 114).—As a medial, its combination with s and t was so acceptable to the Latins that ps and pt are often put for bs and bt; so, OPSIDESQVE and OPTENVI in the Epitaphs of the Scipios; and so, too, in later inscrr.: APSENS, APSENTI, SVPSIGNARE, etc., and in MSS.—A final p occurs only in the apocopated volup.For the very frequent interchange of p and b, see under B.—P is put for v in opilio for ovilio, from ovis.—An instance of its commutation with palatals appears in lupus and lu/kos, and perhaps also spolium and sku=lon, spuma and O.H.G. scum, Germ. Schaum, as, on the other hand, equus and i(/ppos, palumba and columba, jecur and h(=par; cf., also, the letter Q.—Its commutation with a lingual is shown in pavo and taw/s, and perh. also in hospes and hostis. —P is assimilated to a following f in officina for opificina, and is altogether elided by syncope in Oscus for Opscus.—It is euphonically inserted between ms and mt: sumpsi, sumptum, hiemps for hiems; cf.: exemplum, templum, and late Lat. dampnum.—It is suppressed in amnis for ap-nis from apa = aqua.As an abbreviation, P denotes most frequently the prænomen Publius, but also stands for parte, pater, pedes, pia, pondo, populus, posuerunt, publicus, etc. P. C. stands for patres conscripti, patronus civitatis or coloniae, ponendum curavit, potestate censoriā, etc. P. M. pontifex maximus, patronus municipii, posuit merito. P. P. pater patriae, praepositus, primi pilus, pro parte. P. R. populus Romanus. P. S. pecunia sua.

Q q, the sixteenth letter of the Latin alphabet,
Q, q, the sixteenth letter of the Latin alphabet (in which i and j were reckoned as one), concerning the origin of which the ancients were in doubt, some correctly supposing it to be the Greek Koppa (?*!), transferred from the Dorian alphabet of Cumæ, Quint. 1, 4, 9; Ter. Maur. p. 2253 P.; Mar. Victor. p. 2459 and 2468 ib.; while others erroneously explained it as a mere graphical contraction of C and V, Vel. Long. p. 2218 P.; Ter. Maur. p. 2399 ib.; cf. Diom. p. 420 ib.; Mart. Cap. 3, § 255; Isid. Orig. 1, 4, 14. There is a perpetual vacillation between the spelling cu, q, and qu in the inscrr. and MSS.; hence q frequently stands for c. In early inscriptions, PEQVDES and PEQVNIA occur for pecudes and pecunia (Lex Thor. lin. 14 and 19); QVM for the prep. cum, Inscr. Vet. ap. Orell. 566, and also upon a coin, A. U. C. 737; and QVOM for the prep. cum, in the fourth epitaph of the Scipios, and in the Lex Thor. lin. 21: QVOQIRCA for quocirca in the Lex Jul. Municip.: IN OQVOLTOD for in occulto, S. C. Bacch. On the other hand, for quod stands CVOD, Inscr. Orell. 3882; for aquae, ACVAE, Inscr. Grut. 593, 5. But qu before a u sound does not occur during the Republican period, when quom or cum, equos, locuntur, anticus, etc., were the forms in use; v. Rib. prol. Verg. p. 442 sq.; 449; Brambach, p. 20 sq. — On the vacillation of the oldest MSS. between cu and qu, see Freund ad Cic. Mil. p. 31 sq. — Q often corresponds with the Greek p: Lat. quinque, equos, sequor; Gr. pe/nte (pe/mpe) i(/ppos, e(/pw. — And also with the Gr. t, for which the Oscan has p: Gr. ti/s, ti/; Oscan pis, pit; Lat. quis, quid: Gr. te/; Oscan pe; Lat. que: Gr. te/ttara; Oscan petora; Lat. quattuor; on the origin of the Lat. qu in an lndo-European kv, v. Corss. Ausspr. 1, 67 sqq.; Ascoli, Vergl. Lautl. 1, p. 49 sqq.; cf., on the development of qu from c in the Latin language itself, Corss. Ausspr. 2, 356 sq.—As an abbreviation, Q designates most freq. the prænomen Quintus, but also stands for Quaestor, que, quinquennalis, al. Q. I. S. S. quae infra scripta sunt. Q. R. C. F. quando rex comitiavit fas. Q. S. P. P. S. qui sacris publicis praesto sunt. Q. V. A. qui vixit annos. S. P. Q. R. senatus populusque Romanus, etc.

R r, indecl., n. f.,
R, r, indecl. n. or (sc. littera) f. The seventeenth letter of the Latin alphabet, which derives its form from the Greek P, but is not, like that, aspirated. Thus Burrus, arrabo, were originally written for *pu/rros, a)rrabw/n. In words borrowed from the Greek, an h was subsequently appended to the r, as a sign of the spiritus asper. On account of its vibratory sound, resembling the snarling of a dog, r is called by Persius littera canina, Sat. 1, 109; cf. Lucil. ap. Charis. p. 100 P. — In many words, r medial and final (but not initial) represents an original s. Tradition ascribes the introduction of r for s to Appius Claudius Caecus, consul 446 and 457 A. U. C., or to L. Papirius Crassus, consul 417 A. U. C., Dig. 1, 2, 2, § 36; Cic. Fam. 9, 21, 2. Examples of a change of s into r are: asa, lases, plusima, meliosem, meliosibus, foedesum, Fusius, Papisius, Valesius, fusvos, janitos, into ara, lares, plurima, meliorem, melioribus, foederum, Furius, Papirius, Valerius, furvus, janitor; heri (compared with hesternus and the Greek xqe/s); so, too, dirimo is formed from dis-emo. Cf. Varr. L. L. 7, § 26 Müll.; Cic. l. l.; Quint. 1, 4, 13; Ter. Scaur. p. 2252 and 2258 P.; Fest. s. v. Aureliam, p. 20; R pro S, p. 134; pignosa, p. 198. Both sounds have maintained their place in some substantives of the third declension ending in or or os (arbor, color, honor, labor, lepor, etc., and also arbos, colos, honos, labos, lepos, etc.); so in quaeso, quaesumus, also written quaero, quaerimus; cf. nasus and naris, pulvis and pulver, etc.— The converse change of an original r into s appears very doubtful. Forms like hesternus (from heri), festus (also feriae), ustum (from uro), etc., indicate rather an original s, when compared with arbustum also arboretum, and majusculus also major.— For the relation of the r to d and l, v. D and L. — R is assimilated, Most freq. before l: libellus, tenellus, intellego, pellicio, from liber, tener, inter-lego, per-lacio, v. the art. per. — Before s: dossuarius, from dorsum. — R is elided in pejero (from perjuro), and in the forms crebesco, rubesco, susum, also written crebresco, rubresco, sursum, etc. — As an abbreviation, R. signifies Romanus, also Rufus, recte, reficiendum, regnum, ripa, et mult. al.; R.P. respublica; R.R. rationes relatae (cf. Fest. p. 228 Müll.).

S s, indecl., n. f.,
S, s, indecl. n. or (agreeing with littera) f. The eighteenth letter of the Latin alphabet, corresponding in form to the old Greek S for *s (Etruscan in a reversed form, ); in its nature a sibilant semi-vowel, whose peculiarities were much discussed by the ancients, and are even treated of in a special work by Messala, a contemporary of Augustus (Messala in libro de S littera, Quint. 1, 7, 23; cf. Mart. Cap. 3, § 245).— As an initial and medial it has a hard and sharp sound (which is softened, however, between two vowels), and is therefore joined only with the tenues (c, p, t; cf., on the contrary, the Gr. sbe/nnumi); and, as a medial, often written double after long vowels: caussa, cassus, divissiones (these forms, used by Cicero and Vergil, were already uncommon in Quintilian's time, Quint. 1, 7, 20; v. Corss. Ausspr. 1, 283 sq.).— As a final it had a weakened sound, and therefore not only admitted the medial b before it (plebs, urbs, abs; Arabs, chalybs, etc.; v. the letter B), but often entirely disappeared. So in the ante-class. poets down to the early years of Cicero (and also in his own poem, entitled Aratus, written in his youth), before words beginning with a consonant, to avoid position: Ratu' Romulus, Fulviu' Nobilior, gravi' Terra, est sati' bella, Hyperioni' cursum, Virgine' nam sibi, etc.; cf. Cic. Or. 48, 161; Quint. 9, 4, 38; and v. Freund, in Jahn's Neue Jahrb. 1835, XIII. p. 25 sq.; less freq. before words beginning with a vowel, in which case, to avoid a hiatus, the vowel before s was also elided; vas' argenteis (for vasis argenteis) and palm' et crinibus (for palmis et crinibus); v. Cic. Or. 45, 153. So, too, in the fourth Epitaph of the Scipios (Inscr. Orell. 553), L. CORNELIO L. F. instead of CORNELIOS (cf. a similar elision of the M under that letter). Final s is also elided, and the preceding vowel either dropped with it or weakened, in the forms sat from satis, mage from magis; in the neutr. forms of adjectives of the third declension, acre, agreste, facile (v. the letter E); in the collat. forms of the sec. pers. sing. pass., fatere, fateare, fatebare, etc.; in the gen. sing. of the first, second, and fifth declensions, and in the nom. plur. of the first and second declensions (aurai for aura-is, analog. to regis, etc.). Lastly, s disappears in the (mostly familiar) collat. forms abin', scin', viden', satin', from abisne, scisne, videsne, satisne, etc.— As an etymological initial aspirate, s appears in many words whose Greek equivalents begin with a vowel: sal, semi-, serpo, sex, super, sus, corresp. to a(/ls, h(mi-, e(/rpw, e(/c, u(pe/r, u/=s, etc.; si (archaic sei), sero, Segesta, corresp. to ei), *)e*r*w (whence ei)/rw), *)/egesta. Less freq. in radical words beginning with a consonant: sculpo corresp. to glu/fw, and the derivatives scruta, from gru/th, and scrupedae, from krou/peza. To soften the termination, s appears in abs = ab, and ex corresp. to e)k.—Very freq., on the contrary, an initial s appears in cognate forms in other languages, where corresp. Latin words have lost the s: Lat. fallo, Gr. sfa/llw; fungus, Gr. sfo/ggos; fides, Gr. sfi/dh (comp. also nix with Engl.snow, nurus with old Germ. snur, daughterin-law); cf. also cutis and scutum; cauda and root sku-, in Goth. skauts, etc.; casa and Gr. skia/, skhnh/; cerno and Gr. kri/nw for ski/rnw, skw/r, skwri/a; calumnia and ska/llw; gradior and root scra-, Germ. schreiten; parco and sparno/s; penuria and spa/nis; pando and spa/w; tego and ste/gw; tono and sto/nos; taurus and Sanscr. sthūras, Germ. Stier al.; v. Corss. Ausspr. 1, p. 277 sqq.—In the middle of a word s is dropped in at from ast.— S is interchanged, Most freq. with r; in partic., an original s, between two vowels, becomes r; v. Varr. L. L. 7, § 26 Müll.; so foederum for foedesum, plurima for plusima, meliorem for meliosem, Lares for Lases, etc.; cf. eram and sum, quaero and quaeso, nasus and naris. Appius Claudius, the censor, is said to have introduced r into the names Furius, Valerius, etc., in place of s, B.C. 312 (v. the letter R, II.).— With d: Claudius, from the Sabine Clausus; and, on the other hand, rosa, corresp. to the Gr. r(o/don; cf. Schneid. Gram. 1, p. 259.— With t: tensus and tentus, resina corresp. to r(hti/nh; and, on the contrary, aggrettus for aggressus; mertare, pultare, for mersare, pulsare (perh. also assentor for assensor).— With x; v. that letter.— S is assimilated before f in the compounds of dis: differo, difficilis, diffluo, etc.; v. 3. dis.— On the other hand, it arises by assimilation from d, in assum, assumo, cessi, for adsum, adsumo, ced-si; from t in fassus, from fateor; from b in jussi, from jubeo; from m in pressi, from premo; from r in gessi, from gero; and dossuarius, from dorsum. — As an abbreviation, S denotes sacrum, semis, sibi, suis, etc.; S. AS. D., sub asciā dedicavit; S. C., senatusconsultum; perh. also, sententia collegii (Inscr. Orell. 2385); S. P., sua pecunia; S. P. Q. R., Senatus Populusque Romanus, etc.

T t, indecl., n. f.,
T, t. indecl. n. or (to agree with littera) f., the nineteenth letter of the Lat. alphabet (i and j being counted as one), = Gr. T (tau=). It is very freq. as a final letter, esp. in verbal endings of the third person. As an initial, it is, in pure Lat. words, followed by no consonant except r: traho, tremo, tribuo, etc.; the combinations tl and tm are found only in words borrowed from the Greek: Tlepolemus, tmesis, Tmolus. Hence an initial t occurring in the ancient language before l (like an initial d before v, v. letter D) is rejected in classical Lat.: lātus (Part. of fero) for tlatus, from root tol- of tollo, tuli; cf. with *t*l*a*w, tlhto/s; even when softened by a sibilant, the combination of t and l in stlata (genus navigii), stlembus (gravis, tardus), stlis, stlocus, was avoided, and, except in the formal lang. of law, which retained stlitibus judicandis, the forms lis, locus remained the only ones in use, though the transitional form slis occurs twice in very old inscriptions. Before a vowel or r, the original Indo-European t always retained its place and character. Between two vowels t and tt were freq. confounded, and in some words the double letter became established, although the original form had but one t; thus, quattuor, cottidie, littera, stand in the best MSS. and inscriptions; v. Corss. Ausspr. 1, 174 sqq.— The sibilant pronunciation of a medial t before i and a following vowel, is a peculiarity of a late period. Isidorus (at the commencement of the seventh century after Christ) is the first who expresses himself definitely on this point: cum justitia sonum z litterae exprimat, tamen quia Latinum est, per t scribendum est, sicut militia, malitia, nequitia et cetera similia (Orig. 1, 26, 28); but the commutation of ci and ti, which occurs not unfrequently in older inscriptions, shows the origin of this change in pronunciation to have been earlier. In the golden age of the language, however, it was certainlyunknown.— The aspiration of t did not come into general use till the golden age; hence, CARTACINIENSIS, on the Columna Rostrata; whereas in Cicero we have Carthago, like Cethegus, etc.; v. Cic. Or. 48, 160; and cf. letter C.— T is interchanged with d, c, and s; v. these letters.— T is assimilated to s in passus from patior, quassus from quatio, fassus from fateor, missus from mitto, equestris from eques (equit-), etc. It is wholly suppressed before s in usus, from utor; in many nominatives of the third declension ending in s: civitas (root civitat, gen. civitatis), quies (quiet, quietis), lis (lit, litis), dos (dot, dotis), salus (salut, salutis), amans (amant, amantis), mens (ment, mentis), etc.; and likewise in flexi, flexus, from flecto, and before other letters, in remus, cf. ratis; Gr. e)retmo/s; in penna; root pat-, to fly; Gr. pe/tomai, etc. In late Lat. the vulgar language often dropped t before r and before vowels; hence such forms as mari, quaraginta, donaus, are found for matri, quatriginta (quad-), donatus, in inscriptions; cf. the French mère, quarante, donné.— As an abbreviation, T. stands for Titus; Ti. Tiberius; TR. Tribunus; T. F. Testamenti formula; T. F. C. Titulum faciendum curavit; T. P. Tribunicia potestas, etc.

U u,
U, u (orig. V, v, a modification of the Greek *U, Marc. Vict. p. 2459 P.), the twentieth letter of the Latin alphabet (i and j being counted as one), a vowel, which was early distinguished by the old grammarians from the consonant V, though represented by the same sign; v. the letter V. The long u corresponded in sound to the Greek ou, and to the German and Italian u (Engl. oo); the short u seems to have been an obscure sound resembling the German ü and the French u; hence ŭ sometimes represented the Greek u, as in fuga from fugh/, cuminum from ku/minon, etc.; and sometimes was exchanged with the Latin i, as in optimus and optumus, carnufex and carnifex, satura and satira, in the old inscriptions CAPVTALIS and NOMINVS LATINI, in the emperor Augustus's pronunciation of simus for sumus, etc.; v. the letter I. For the affinity of u with o and with v, v. under those letters. U inserted in Alcumena, Alcumaeo, Æsculapius, Tecumessa, drachuma al.; v. Ritschl in Rhein. Mus. Neue Folge, 8, p. 475 sq.; 9, p. 480; and cf. the letters A and O.—As an abbreviation, V. (as the sign of the vowel u) stands for uti, so V. V. uti voverant; and especially for urbs (i. e. Roma); as, U. C. (urbis conditae), or A. U. C. (ab urbe conditā). For its meanings when used as a sign of the consonant V, v. under the letter V fin.

V v,
V, v, a character derived from the Greek g, Mar. Victor. p. 2459 P. A consonant which, though originally written with the same sign as the vowel u (v. the letter U), was by the ancients themselves considered as essentially different from it, Charis. p. 57 P.; Diom. p. 416; 420 P.; Prisc. p. 539; 542; 544 sq. P.; Vel. Long. p. 2215; 2222 P.; just as the consonant i (j) and the vowel i were regarded as two distinct letters; v. the letter J. The sound of V seems to have been the same with that of English initial W. It corresponded to the Æolic digamma; hence it is called, Quint. 12, 10, 29, Aeolica littera, and the emperor Claudius used the Greek digamma inverted F to represent it (because in its proper position it already formed the Latin letter F), Quint. 1, 7, 26; Prisc. p. 545 sq. P.; Gell. 14, 5, 2; v. also the inscrr. of the period during and immediately succeeding the reign of Claudius, Inscr. Orell. 710 sq.; Marini Atti, p. 97. In very many words which were originally common to both languages, the initial or medial v in Latin represents a lost digamma in Greek; cf.: ver, h)=r; vis, i)/s; video, *i*d; vestis, e)sqh/s; vitulus, i)talo/s; vomo, e)me/w; voco, e)/pw; volvo, ei)/lw; vinum, oi)nos; viola, i)/on; vespera, e(spe/ra; Vesta, *(esti/a; silva, u(/lh; ovis, o)/i+s; divus, di=os; aevum, ai)w/n; scaevus, skaio/s; vicus, oi)=kos; levis, lei=os al. (For a full discussion of the sound of V, see Roby, Gram. I. praef. p. xxxiii. sqq.).— V has the closest affinity to the vowel u, and hence, in the course of composition and inflection, it often passed into the latter: solvo, solutum, from solvĭtum, solŭĭtum; caveo, cautum, from cavitum; fautor, from faveo; lautum, from lavo; nauta, from navita; audeo, cf. avidus; neu, seu, from neve, sive; tui, cf. Sanscr. tvam; sui, Sanscr. sva-; suavis, Sanscr. svadus, and is resolved into it by the poets from prosodial necessity: silŭa (trisyl.) for silva; dissŏlŭo, evŏlŭam (quadrisyl.), for dissolvam, evolvam; dissŏlŭenda, evolŭisse (quinquasyl.), for dissolvenda, evolvisse, etc., just as, for the same cause, although less freq., u passed into v: gēnva, tēnvis (dissyl.), for gēnŭa, tĕnŭis; tēnvĭa, tēnvĭus (trisyl.), for tĕnŭĭa, tĕnŭĭus.—For the affinity of v to b, v. the letter B.— V as a medial between two vowels was very freq. elided, esp. in inflection, and the word underwent in consequence a greater or less contraction: amavisti, amāsti; deleverunt, delērunt; novisti, nōsti; audivisti, audīsti, or audiisti; siveris, siris, or sieris; obliviscor, oblitus; dives, dis; aeviternus, aeternus; divitior, ditior; bovibus, bubus, etc.; providens, prudens; movimentum, momentum; provorsus, prorsus; si vis, sis; si vultis, sultis; Jovis pater, Juppiter; mage volo, mavolo, malo; non volo, nolo, etc. An example of the elision of v without a further contraction of the word is found in seorsus, from sevorsus (v. seorsus).—This etymological suppression of v is to be distinguished from its purely orthographical omission before or after u in ancient MSS. and inscriptions, as serus for servus, noum for novum, festius for festivus, Pacuius for Pacuvius; cf. the letters J and Q.—V is sometimes elided after a mute: dis for dvis from duo; likewise after s: sibi for svibi (from su-ibi); sis, sas, sos, for suis, suas, suos; sultis for si vultis; so Lat. si corresponds to Umbr. sve and Osc. svai; v. esp. Corss. Ausspr. 1, p. 310 sqq.— As an abbreviation, V (as the sign of the consonant) stands for vir, vivus, vixit, voto, vale, verba, etc.; V. C., or also VC., vir clarissimus; VCP., voti compos posuit; V. V., virgo Vestalis; V. F. Q. D. E. R. F. P. D. E. R. I. C., verba fecerunt. Quid de eā re fieri placeret, de eā re ita censuerunt.—As a numeral, the letter V stands for half of the geometrical cross X or ten, Zumpt, Gr. § 115 Anm. 1.

X x,
X, x, a character probably derived from the Greek *c (this form of that letter being found in some few Greek inscriptions). Though not introduced instead of the characters for the two separate sounds till after the adoption of the alphabet, the letter x is certainly older than the Latin inscriptions known to us; for we find in the Columna rostr., EXEMET MAXIMOS, EXFOCIONT; in the fifth Epitaph of the Scipios, SAXSVM; and in the S. C. de Bacch., EXDEICENDVM, EXDEICATIS. EXTRAD, etc.The sound of X was like that of the Greek c, i. e. ks, although etymologically it represented not only cs (as in lux, from luc-s, and dixi, from dic-si), but also gs (as in lex, from leg-s; rexi, from reg-si); hs (as in traxi, from trah-si; vexi, from vehsi); and chs (as in the word onyx, from onych-s, borrowed from the Greek). The hardening of a softer final (g, h, ch) before s into the c-sound, which occurs in the last-mentioned cases, is found also in several roots ending in v and u: nix for niv-s, vixi for viv-si, connixi for conniv-si, fluxi for fluv-si, from fluo (root FLUV; cf. fluvius), struxi for stru-si. Less frequently x has arisen from the combinations ps and ts: proximus for prop-simus (from prope), nixus for nit-sus (from nitor), the latter being used along with the collateral form nisus, as also connivi with connixi, and mistus (from misceo) with mixtus. An exchange of the sounds ss, or s and x, took place in axis for assis, laxus for lassus; cf. also Ulixes, from the Sicilian *ou)li/chs, Etruscan Uluxe for *)odusseu/s; so, too. Sextius, Exquiliae = Sestius, Esquiliae; cf. also Ajax = *ai)/as. In the later language of the vulgar, the guttural sound in x disappeared, and s or ss was often written for it; as vis for vix. vixit for visit. unsit for unxit, conflississet for conflixisset, in late Inscrr. (v. Corss. Ausspr. I. p. 297 sq.); hence regularly in Italian, and frequently in the other Romance tongues, the Lat. x is represented by s or ss. Respecting the nature of x in composition, v. ex.By a mere graphic variation, one of the constituent sounds of x is often expressed in inscriptions (but not the earliest, v. Corss. Ausspr. I. p. 296) by an additional c or s; as SACXO or SAXSO for saxo; VCXOR or VXSOR for uxor; CONIVNCX or CONIVNXS for conjux; even both sounds are sometimes thus expressed, VICXSIT for vixit.As an abbreviation X stands for decem, ten; it was stamped upon the silver denarius, so called because it was valued at ten asses.

Y y, a Greek letter introduced at a late period for words borrowed from the Greek,
Y, y, a Greek letter introduced at a late period for words borrowed from the Greek, the place of the Greek *u being previously filled by U (i. e. V, which graphically originated from *u; v. the letters U and V). Thus, according to the express testimony of Cicero (Or. 48, 160), Ennius always wrote Burrus for Pyrrhus, and Bruges for Phryges; and so the words which were identical in Greek and Latin in the oldest period of the language have either preserved u where the Greek has u, as bucina and buka/nh, cubus and ku/bos, fuga and fugh/, mus and mu=s et saep.; or this u has given place to i, as in lacrima, formerly lacruma, = da/kruma. Sometimes, also, o took the place of the u; cf. mola and mu/lh, sorex and u(/rac, folium and fu/llon, and, shortening a long vowel, ancŏra and a)/gkura, like lacrĭma and da/kru=ma. In Cicero's time y seems to have been already in use; but its application was restricted to foreign words, and hence the spellings Sylla, Tybris, pyrum, satyra, etc., are to be rejected.

Z z, was perhaps a letter of the original Latin alphabet, since it is found in the Carmen Saliare,
Z, z, was perhaps a letter of the original Latin alphabet, since it is found in the Carmen Saliare, Varr. L. L. 7, § 26 Müll.; and in a Latin record of an Oscan law of the time of the Gracchi, C. I. L. 1, 197; but it had long disappeared, when, in Cicero's time, it again came into use, but only in transcribing Greek names, to represent the Greek *z, z, which had previously been represented, when initial, by s, as in Saguntum for *za/kunqos, Sethus, sona, etc.; and by ss when medial, as in Atticisso, badissas, etc., in Plautus. It seems to have been sounded like the Engl. z (Corss. Ausspr. 1, p. 295; but cf. Roby, Gr. 1, § 195). In late Latin writings z is very frequent in place of s, and in the words Zmyrna for Smyrna, zmaragdus for smaragdus, is found in the best MSS. In writings of the third and fourth Christian centuries z often stands for initial di before a vowel, as zaconus, zabulus, etc.; cf. the Æolic za/ for dia/.

a -scio adsc-, 4, v. a.
a -scĭo (adsc-, Rib., Halm), īvi (never ii), 4, v. a., like adopto, arrogo, etc., transf. from the sphere of civil law to common life, to receive, admit (like scio in this signif., very rare, perh. only in Verg. and Tac.; cf. ascisco): si socios sum adscire paratus, Verg. A. 12, 38: generum, id. ib. 11, 472: adsciri per adoptionem, Tac. A. 1, 3: sibi Tiberium adscivit, id. ib. 4, 57: adsciri in societatem Germanos, id. H. 4, 24: adsciri inter comites, id. ib. 4, 80: milites adscire, id. Agr. 19.

a -scisco adsc- asc-, itum, 3, v. a.
a -scisco (adsc-, Lachm., Baiter, Dietsch, Weissenb., K. and H., Halm in Tac.; asc-, Merk., Kayser, Rib., Halm in Nep.), īvi (in ante-class. and class. Lat. never ii), ītum, 3, v. a. Lit., to take or receive a thing with knowledge (and approbation), to approve, receive as true: cum jussisset populus Romanus aliquid, si id ascivissent socii populi ac Latini, etc., Cic. Balb. 8, 20: quas (leges) Latini voluerunt, asciverunt, id. ib. 8, 20, § 21: quibus (scitis) adscitis susceptisque, id. Leg. 2, 5: tu vero ista ne adsciveris neve fueris commenticiis rebus assensus, id. Ac. 2, 40, 125: ne labar ad opinionem, et aliquid adsciscam et comprobem incognitum, id. ib. 2, 45, 138.— Of persons, to receive or admit one in some capacity (as citizen, ally, son, etc.): dominos acrīs adsciscunt, Lucr. 5, 87; 6, 63: perficiam ut hunc A. Licinium non modo non segregandum, cum sit civis, a numero civium, verum etiam, si non esset, putetis asciscendum fuisse, Cic. Arch. 2 fin.; cf. id. Balb. 13: [aliā (civitate) ascitā], Nep. Att. 3, 1 Halm: Numam Pompilium ... regem alienigenam sibi ipse populus adscivit eumque ad regnandum Romam Curibus adscivit, Cic. Rep. 2, 13: aliquem patronum, id. Pis. 11, 25: socios sibi ad id bellum Osismios, etc., adsciscunt, Caes. B. G. 3, 9, 10; so id. ib. 1, 5, 4: socius adscitus, Sall. C. 47, 1: aliquem ducem, Auct. B. Alex. 59, 2: qui non asciverit ultro Dardanium Aenean generumque acceperit urbi, Verg. A. 11, 471: gener inde provecto annis adscitus, Liv. 21, 2; so Tac. H. 1, 59: ascivit te filium non vitricus, sed princeps, Plin. Pan. 7, 4: tribuni centurionesque adsciscebantur, Tac. H. 2, 5 fin.: aliquem successorem, Suet. Tib. 23 fin. al.—In the histt. also with in (in civitatem, societatem, senatum, nomen, etc.): adsciti simul in civitatem et patres, Liv. 6, 40, 4: simul in civitatem Romanam et in familias patriciorum adscitus, Tac. A. 11, 24: aliquem in numerum patriciorum, id. ib. 11, 25: inter patricios, id. Agr. 9: Chauci in commilitium adsciti sunt, id. A. 1, 60: aliquem in penates suos, id. H. 1, 15: aliquem in nomen, id. A. 3, 30; Suet. Claud. 39: aliquem in bona et nomen, id. Galb. 17.— Transf., in gen., to take or receive a person to one's self; of things, to appropriate to one's self, adopt (diff. from adjungere and assumere, by the accessory idea of exertion and mediation, or of personal reflection; cf. Herz. ad Caes. B. G. 3, 9, 10; Sall. C. 24, 3). Of persons: nemo oppressus aere alieno fuit, quem non ad hoc incredibile sceleris foedus asciverit, Cic. Cat. 2, 4 fin.: exsulibus omnium civitatium ascitis, receptis latronibus, etc., Hirt. B. G. 8, 30: eā tempestate plurimos cujusque generis homines adscivisse dicitur, Sall. C. 24, 3: Veientes re secundā elati voluntarios undique ad spem praedae adsciverunt, Liv. 4, 31, 3; Tac. H. 2, 8: in conscientiam facinoris pauci adsciti, id. ib. 1, 25.—Poet.: asciscere for asciscere se or ascisci, to join or unite one's self to one (cf.. Accingunt omnes operi, Verg. A. 2, 235): ascivere tuo comites sub numine divae centum omnes nemorum, Grat. Cyn. 16.— Of things: Quae neque terra sibi adscivit nec maxumus aether, which neither the earth appropriates to itself nor etc., Lucr. 5, 473: Jovisque numen Mulciberi adscivit manus, Att. ap. Cic. Tusc. 2, 10, 23: sibi oppidum asciscere, Cic. Verr. 2, 4, 10: Ceres et Libera ... quarum sacra populus Romanus a Graecis ascita et accepta tantā religione tuetur, etc., id. ib. 2, 5, 72; so id. Har Resp. 13, 27; Ov. M. 15, 625 Heins., where Merk. reads acciverit (cf. Web. ad Luc. 8, 831): peregrinos ritus, Liv. 1, 20: Spem si quam ascitis Aetolum habuistis in armis, Verg. A. 11, 308: opimum quoddam et tamquam adipatae dictionis genus, Cic. Or 8, 25: nova (verba) adsciscere, * Hor. Ep. 2, 2, 119: quod ipsa natura adsciscat et reprobet, Cic. Fin. 1, 7, 23 (B. and K., sciscat et probet): adsciscere aut probare amicitiam aut justitiam, id. ib. 3, 21, 70; id. Leg. 1, 11: illa, quae prima sunt adscita naturā, id. Fin. 3, 5, 17 (cf. Beier ad Cic. Off. 3, 3, 13, p. 203): hanc consuetudinemlubenter ascivimus, id. Brut. 57, 209. — Sibi, like arrogo, to assume or arrogate something to one's self (very rare): eos illius expertes esse prudentiae, quam sibi asciscerent, Cic. de Or. 1, 19, 87: eloquentiae laudem uni sibi, Tac. A. 14, 52; cf. Cic. Dom. 36, 95.—* To order, decree, or approve also or further, = etiam sciscere: alterum (genus sacerdotum) quod interpretetur fatidicorum et vatium ecfata incognita, quae eorum senatus populusque adsciverit, Cic. Leg. 2, 8, ubi v. Moser.— ascītus, P. a. (opp. nativus, innatus, insitus), derived, assumed, foreign: in eo nativum quemdam leporem esse, non ascitum, Nep. Att. 4, 1 Halm: proles, Stat. S. 1, 1, 23; genitos esse vos mihi, non ascitos milites credite, Curt. 10, 3, 6: nec petit ascitas dapes, Ov. F. 6, 172.

a, interj.
ā, interj.=ah, v. ah.

a, prep.
a, prep.=ab, v. ab.

o,
ō (long also before an initial vowel: o ego, Ov. M. 8, 51; Hor. A. P. 301; but also short: ŏ Alexi, Verg. E. 2, 65), interj. The commonest exclamation of joy, astonishment,desire, grief, indignation, etc.; O! Oh! constr. usually with voc. or acc.; less freq. with nom., gen., utinam, si. With voc.: o Romule, Romule die, Enn. ap. Cic. Rep. 1, 41 Vahl. (Ann. v. 115 Vahl.): o Tite, tute Tuti, id. ap. Prisc. p. 947 P. (Ann. v. 113 Vahl.); cf.: o Tite, si quid te adjuero, id. ap. Cic. Sen. 1, 1 (Ann. v. 339 Vahl.): o mi Furni! Cic. Fam. 10, 26, 2: o paterni generis oblite, id. Pis. 26, 62.— With acc.: o faciem pulchram ... o infortunatum senem, Ter. Eun. 2, 3, 5 and 7: o miseras hominum mentes, Lucr. 2, 14: o me perditum, o me afflictum! Cic. Fam. 14, 4, 3: o hominem nequam! id. Att. 4, 13, 2: o praeclarum custodem ovium, ut aiunt, lupum! id. Phil. 3, 11, 27: o rem totam odiosam, id. Att. 6, 4, 1: o Bruti amanter seriptas, litteras, id. ib. 15, 10.— With nom. (rare): o pietas animi, Enn. ap. Cic. Ac. 2, 27, 88 (Ann. v. 8 Vahl.): o Patricoles, id. ap. Cic. Tusc. 2, 16, 38 (Trag. v. 14 Vahl.): o vir fortis atque amicus! Ter. Phorm. 2, 2, 10: o ego ter felix, Ov. M. 8, 51; so, o ego, Hor. A. P. 301: o multum miseri, Ov. M. 4, 155: o qualis facies! Juv. 10, 157.— With utinam: o utinam Obrutus esset! Ov. H. 1, 5; id. M. 1, 363 al.— With si: quamquam, o si solitae quicquam virtutis adesset! yet oh! if, etc., Verg. A. 11, 415.— With gen.: o nuntii beati, Cat. 9, 5.—By poets also placed after a word: o lux Dardaniae, spes o fidissima Teucrūm, Verg. A. 2, 281: quid o tua fulmina cessant! Ov. M. 2, 279.—Three times repeated: o pater, o genitor, o sanguen dis oriundum, Enn. ap. Cic. Rep. 1, 41 (Ann. v. 117 Vahl.); cf.: o pater, o patria, o Priami domus, id. ap. Cic. Tusc. 3, 19, 44 (Trag. v. 118 Vahl.): o soror, o conjux, o femina sola superstes, Ov. M. 1, 351.

† melitis,
† mēlītis, a false read. for chalcitis, Plin. 37, 11, 73, § 191.

† moecha, ae, f.,
† moecha, ae, f., = moixh/, an adulteress: ne sequerer moechas, Hor. S. 1, 4, 113: turpis, Cat. 42, 3: putida, id. 42, 11: bustuaria, Mart. 3, 93, 15: fastosa, id. 10, 13, 7: zelotypa, Juv. 6, 278.—In apposition: uxor moecha, Aus. Ep. 10.

† moechia, ae, f.,
† moechīa, ae, f., = moixei/a, adultery (eccl. Lat.), Tert. Pudic. 5.

† moechus, i, m.,
† moechus, i, m., = moixo/s, a fornicator, an adulterer: magnus mulierum, Plaut. Mil. 3, 1, 180; Ter. And. 2, 1, 16; id. Eun. 5, 4, 35; Hor. C. 1, 25, 9; id. S. 2, 7, 13; 72; Juv. 9, 25; 14, 26 et saep.

† moera mira, ae, f.,
† moera (mīra), ae, f., = moi=ra, a part, a degree, in the astronomical sense (post-class.), Sid. Carm. 15, 66; 14 prooem.

† molochina, ae, f.,
† mŏlŏchĭna, ae, f. moloche, = moloxi/nh, a garment woven of fibres from the mallow: carbasina molochina ampelina, Caecil. ap. Non. 548, 14 (Com. Rel. v. 139 Rib.).—Also called mŏlucĭum or moli-cina, Nov. ap. Non. 539, 20 (Com. Rel. v. 71 Rib.).

† molochites, ae, m.,
† mŏlŏchītes, ae, m., = moloxi/ths, an Arabian gem of the color of mallows, perh. malachite, Plin. 37, 8, 36, § 114.

† monochromateus, a, um, adj.
† mŏnochrōmătēus, a, um, adj., = monoxrwma/teios, a false reading for mox neogrammatea, Plin. 35, 5, 11, § 29.

† rhapeion, ii, n.,
† rhăpēĭon, ii, n., = r(aph/i+on, a plant, also called leontopetaion, Plin. 27, 11, 72, § 96 (al. rhaphanidion).

† rhapisma, atis, n.,
† rhăpisma, ătis, n., = r(a/pisma, a blow with the palm of the hand, Cod. Just. 8, 49, 6.

† rhapsodia, ae, f.,
† rhapsōdĭa, ae, f., = r(aywdi/a, |a rhapsody: secunda, i. e. the second book of the Iliad, Nep. Dion, 6, 4.

† rhectae, arum, m.,
† rhēctae, ārum, m., = r(h=ktai, a kind of earthquake, App. de Mundo, p. 65, 26.

† rhonchus, i, m.,
† rhonchus, i, m., = r(o/gxos. A snoring, Mart. 3, 82, 30.— Transf., the croaking of a frog, App. M. 1, p. 106.— Trop., a sneering, sneer, jeer, Mart. 1, 3, 5; 4, 87, 7.